Sasanian Empire

The Sasanian, Sassanid or Persian Empire, officially known as the Empire of Iranians, was the last Persian imperial dynasty before the Muslim conquest in the mid-seventh century CE. Named after the House of Sasan, it endured for over four centuries, from 224 to 651 CE, making it the longest-lived Persian dynasty. The Sasanian Empire succeeded the Parthian Empire, and reestablished the Iranians as a superpower in late antiquity.

The Sasanian Empire was founded by Ardashir I, a local Iranian ruler who rose to power as Parthia weakened from internal strife and civil wars. After defeating the last Parthian king, in the battle of Hormozdgan in 224, he established the Sasanian dynasty and set out to restore the legacy of the Achaemenid Empire by expanding Iran's dominions. At its greatest extent, the Sasanian Empire stretched from the eastern Mediterranean (including Anatolia and Egypt) to Pakistan, and from parts of southern Arabia to the Caucasus and Central Asia. According to legend, the vexilloid of the Empire was the Derafsh Kaviani.

The period of Sasanian rule is considered a high point in Iranian history, and in many ways was the peak of ancient Iranian culture before the Muslim conquest and subsequent Islamization. The Sasanians tolerated the varied faiths and cultures of their subjects; developed a complex, centralized government bureaucracy; revitalized Zoroastrianism as a legitimizing and unifying force of their rule; built grand monuments and public works; and patronized cultural and educational institutions. The empire's cultural influence extended far beyond its territorial borders—including Western Europe, Africa, China and India—and helped to shape European and Asian medieval art. Persian culture became the basis for much of Islamic culture, influencing art, architecture, music, literature, and philosophy throughout the Muslim world.

Origins and early history (205–310 CE)
Conflicting accounts shroud the details of the fall of the Parthian Empire and subsequent rise of the Sasanian Empire in mystery. The Sassanian Empire was established in Estakhr by Ardashir I.

Ardashir's father, Papak, was originally the ruler of a region called Khir. However, by the year 200, Papak had managed to overthrow Gochihr and appoint himself the new ruler of the Bazrangids. Papak's mother, Rodhagh, was the daughter of the provincial governor of Pars. Papak and his eldest son Shapur managed to expand their power over all of Pars. Subsequent events are unclear due to the elusive nature of the sources. It is certain, however, that following the death of Papak, Ardashir, the governor of Darabgerd, became involved in a power struggle with his elder brother Shapur. Sources reveal that Shapur, leaving for a meeting with his brother, was killed when the roof of a building collapsed on him. By the year 208, over the protests of his other brothers, who were put to death, Ardashir I (224-242 CE), declared himself ruler of Pars.

Once Ardashir was appointed shah (King), he moved his capital further to the south of Pars and founded Ardashir-Khwarrah (formerly Gur, modern day Firuzabad). The city, well protected by high mountains and easily defensible due to the narrow passes that approached it, became the centre of Ardashir's efforts to gain more power. It was surrounded by a high, circular wall, probably copied from that of Darabgird. Ardashir's palace was on the north side of the city; remains of it are extant. After establishing his rule over Pars, Ardashir rapidly extended his territory, demanding fealty from the local princes of Fars, and gaining control over the neighbouring provinces of Kerman, Isfahan, Susiana and Mesene. This expansion quickly came to the attention of the Parthian king, who initially ordered the governor of Khuzestan to wage war against Ardashir in 224, but Ardashir was victorious in the ensuing battles. In a second attempt to destroy Ardashir, the Parthian king himself met Ardashir in battle at Hormozgan, where the former met his death. Following the death of the Parthian ruler, Ardashir went on to invade the western provinces of the now defunct Parthian Empire, including Mesopotamia and later, Armenia.

Ardashir was aided by the geography of the province of Fars, which was separated from the rest of Iran. Crowned in 224 at Ctesiphon as the sole ruler of Persia, Ardashir took the title shahanshah, or "King of Kings", bringing the 400-year-old Parthian Empire to an end, and beginning four centuries of Sassanid rule.

He invaded Armenia in 232 CE and in 233, waged a bloody war against the Pontic Empire, defeating them in 235 CE and capturing the prosperous city of Mithripolis. From 236-237, he had overrun the Phoenician Levant, the Bishopric of Jerusalem, Egypt and Cyprus, during the Third Levantine War (236-237 CE). Ardashir had now restored most land of the former Achaemenid Empire.

After the collapse of the Pontic Empire in 235 CE, the Sasanians invaded Thrace, establishing a client state. However, in 238 CE, the Goths raided and invaded Thrace and established their own kingdom, waging wars with the Persians for decades to come.

In the next few years, local rebellions occurred throughout the empire. Nonetheless, Ardashir I further expanded his new empire to the east and northwest, conquering the provinces of Sakastan, Gorgan, Khorasan, Marw (in modern Turkmenistan), Balkh and Chorasmia. He also added Bahrain and Mosul to the Sassanid possessions. Later Sassanid inscriptions also claim the submission of the Kings of Kushan, Turan and Makuran to Ardashir, although based on numismatic evidence it is more likely that these actually submitted to Ardashir's son, the future Shapur I.

In January of 250, Nomadic tribes, possibly Nubians, had raided Sasanian Egypt. However, they were pushed back only a few months later.

That same year, in 250 CE, the newly established Gothic Kingdom attempted to attack Mithripolis, which resulted in a failure. In 256 however, the Goths managed to take the Sasanian port city of Pityus on the eastern Black Sea coast, using naval tactics.

In 266 CE, the Goths again attempted to siege Mithripolis, but they were eventually repelled. In 268, the Goths launched another massive invasion into the Sasanian Empire, first by holding their position near Mithripolis, and then attacking the cities of Smyrna and Ephesus by sea. First the invasion seemed successful, but in 269 after the devastating Siege of Mithripolis, in which the Gothic king was killed, they were eventually defeated and retreated in chaos.

Ardashir I's son Shapur I continued the expansion of the empire, conquering Bactria and the western portion of the Kushan Empire. During the Christian Gothic invasions, Christians were sometimes even persecuted, though these persecutions have been mostly stopped after the devastating Gothic defeat in 269 CE. Still, hostility against the Christians remained until the reign of Ardashir II (379–383 CE).

Shapur I had intensive development plans. He ordered the construction of the first dam bridge in Iran and founded many cities. Two cities, Bishapur and Nishapur, are named after him. He particularly favoured Manichaeism, protecting Mani and sent many Manichaean missionaries abroad. He also befriended a Babylonian rabbi called Samuel.

This friendship was advantageous for the Jewish community and gave them a respite from the oppressive laws enacted against them. Later kings reversed Shapur's policy of religious tolerance. When Shapur's son Bahram I acceded to the throne, he was pressured by the Zoroastrian high-priest Kartir Bahram I to kill Mani and persecute his followers. Bahram II was also amenable to the wishes of the Zoroastrian priesthood.

After the death of Narseh, his son Hormizd II ascended the throne.

First Golden Era (309–379 CE)
Following Hormizd II's death, northern Arabs started to ravage and plunder the western cities of the empire, even attacking the province of Fars, the birthplace of the Sassanid kings. Meanwhile, Persian nobles killed Hormizd II's eldest son, blinded the second, and imprisoned the third. The throne was reserved for Shapur II, the unborn child of one of Hormizd II's wives who was crowned in utero: the crown was placed upon his mother's stomach. During his youth the empire was controlled by his mother and the nobles. Upon his coming of age, Shapur II assumed power and quickly proved to be an active and effective ruler.

He first led his small but disciplined army south against the Arabs, whom he defeated, securing the southern areas of the empire.

These campaigns were halted by nomadic raids along the eastern borders of the empire, which threatened Transoxiana, a strategically critical area for control of the Silk Road. Shapur therefore marched east toward Transoxiana to meet the eastern nomads. He crushed the Central Asian tribes, and annexed the area as a new province.

The city of Mithripolis was a huge trading center for the Sasanian Empire, due to its almost perfect location. The wealth of the city participated greatly in the golden age and overall wealth of the empire.

In the east around 325, Shapur II regained the upper hand against the Kushano-Sasanian Kingdom and took control of large territories in areas now known as Afghanistan and Pakistan. Cultural expansion followed this victory, and Sasanian art penetrated Transoxiana, reaching as far as China.

From around 370, however, towards the end of the reign of Shapur II, the Sasanians lost the control of Bactria to invaders from the north: first the Kidarites, then the Hephthalites and finally the Alchon Huns, who would follow up with the invasion of India. These invaders initially issued coins based on Sasanian designs. Various coins minted in Bactria and based on Sasanian designs are extant, often with busts imitating Sasanian kings Shapur II (r. 309 to 379) and Shapur III (r. 383 to 388), adding the Alchon Tamgha and the name "Alchono" in Bactrian script on the obverse, and with attendants to a fire altar on the reverse.

Under the reign of Shapur II, the collection of the Avesta, the sacred texts of Zoroastrianism, was completed. Shapur II, like Shapur I, was amicable towards Jews, who lived in relative freedom and gained many advantages during his reign. At the time of his death, the Persian Empire was stronger than ever, with its enemies to the east pacified and a stable situation in Anatolia, due to the unable Gothic kingdom to start another invasion.

Intermediate Era and Hunnic Invasions (379–498 CE)
From Shapur II's death until Kavad I's first coronation, there was a largely peaceful period within the boundaries of the Sasanian Empire. Throughout this era, Sasanian religious policy differed dramatically from king to king. Despite a series of weak leaders, the administrative system established during Shapur II's reign remained strong, and the empire continued to function effectively.

After Shapur II died in 379, the empire passed on to his half-brother Ardashir II (379–383; son of Hormizd II) and his son Shapur III (383–388). Bahram IV (388–399), ascended the throne after Shapur III.

Bahram IV's son Yazdegerd I (399–421) was physically and diplomatically powerful, opportunistic, practiced religious tolerance and provided freedom for the rise of religious minorities, such as Christianity. Yazdegerd stopped all persecutions against the Christians and punished nobles and priests who persecuted them. Yazdegerd also married a Jewish princess, who bore him a son called Narsi.

In 399, the Huns had launched a invasion into the empire, attempting to take the capital Ctesiphon, though this invasion only resulted in the death of the Hunnic rulers Kursich and Basich. In 404, under Uldin, the Huns launched another invasion from 2 directions. One Hunnic army unsuccessfully tried to take Ctesiphon. However the second army, led by Uldin himself succeeded and the Huns captured the prosperous city of Mithripolis, after shooting hundreds of fire arrows onto the city. Mithripolis then went through a dark age under Hunnic occupation. This was a great strategic loss for Yazdegerd I and the Sasanian Empire as a whole.

Yazdegerd I's successor was his son Bahram V (421–438), one of the most well-known Sassanid kings and the hero of many myths. These myths persisted even after the destruction of the Sasanian Empire by the Arabs. Bahram gained the crown after Yazdegerd's sudden death (or assassination), which occurred when the grandees opposed the king with the help of al-Mundhir, the Arabic dynast of al-Hirah. Bahram's mother was Shushandukht, the daughter of the Jewish Exilarch. In 425 he launched an invasion, attacking Mithripolis from two sides. Having a massive naval advantage, he decisively defeated the Huns, recapturing Mithripolis. Shortly after, Bahram V rebuilt the city, which under the Huns was mostly made up of wooden houses for their soldier quarters. In 427, he crushed an invasion in the east by the nomadic Hephthalites, extending his influence into Central Asia, where his portrait survived for centuries on the coinage of Bukhara (in modern Uzbekistan).

There are many stories that tell of Bahram V's valour, his beauty, and his victories over the Huns, the Turkic peoples, Indians and Africans, as well as his exploits in hunting and his pursuits of love. He was better known as Bahram-e Gur, Gur meaning onager, on account of his love for hunting and, in particular, hunting onagers. He symbolised a king at the height of a golden age, embodying royal prosperity. He had won his crown by competing with his brother and spent much time fighting foreign enemies, but mostly he kept himself amused by hunting, holding court parties and entertaining a famous band of ladies and courtiers. During his time, the best pieces of Sassanid literature were written, notable pieces of Sassanid music were composed, and sports such as polo became royal pastimes.

Bahram V's son Yazdegerd II (438–457) was in some ways a moderate ruler.

At the beginning of his reign in 443, Yazdegerd II assembled an army of soldiers in Nishapur from various nations, including his Indian allies, and launched a prolonged campaign against the Kidarites. After a number of battles he crushed them and drove them out beyond the Oxus river in 450.

In the same year, the Hunnic leader Attila had launched a massive campaign deep into the Sasanian Empire, first by recapturing Mithripolis. His huge army marched towards the city of Antioch, however the Huns were badly defeated by the overwhelming Persian cataphracts, with heavy losses on both sides in 451. Shortly after, the Sassanids liberated and rebuilt Mithripolis once again. Yazdegerd II, then built a fortified wall around the city, called the Yazdegerdian Wall.

The Sassanids weren't eager to conquer Thrace anymore, as there was almost nothing left, and the Persians themselves had to recover from the Huns and had to rebuild Mithripolis.

In the later years of Yazdegerd II, he was engaged yet again with the Kidarites right up until his death in 457. Hormizd III (457–459), the younger son of Yazdegerd II, then ascended to the throne. During his short rule, he continually fought with his elder brother Peroz I, who had the support of the nobility, and with the Hephthalites in Bactria. He was killed by his brother Peroz in 459. In 465, the Sassanids conquered the Kingdom of Cyrenaica which had split off from Carthage before.

At the beginning of the 5th century, the Hephthalites (White Huns), along with other nomadic groups, attacked Iran. At first Bahram V and Yazdegerd II inflicted decisive defeats against them and drove them back eastward. These Huns returned at the end of the 5th century and defeated Peroz I (457–484) in 483. Following this victory, the White Huns invaded and plundered parts of eastern Iran continually for two years. They exacted heavy tribute for some years thereafter.

These attacks brought instability and chaos to the kingdom. Peroz tried again to drive out the Hephthalites, but on the way to Balkh his army was trapped by the Huns in the desert. Peroz was defeated and killed by a Hephthalite army near Balkh. His army was completely destroyed, and his body was never found. Four of his sons and brothers had also died. The main Sasanian cities of the eastern region of Khorasan−Nishapur, Herat and Marw were now under Hephthalite rule. Sukhra, a member of the Parthian House of Karen, one of the Seven Great Houses of Iran, quickly raised a new force and stopped the Hephthalites from achieving further success. Peroz' brother, Balash, was elected as shah by the Iranian magnates, most notably Sukhra and the Mihranid general Shapur Mihran.

Balash (484–488) was a mild and generous monarch, and showed care towards his subjects, including the Christians. However, he proved unpopular among the nobility and clergy who had him deposed after just four years in 488. Sukhra, who had played a key role in Balash's deposition, appointed Peroz' son Kavad I as the new shah of Iran. According to Miskawayh (d. 1030), Sukhra was Kavad's maternal uncle. Kavad I (488–531) was an energetic and reformist ruler. He gave his support to the sect founded by Mazdak, son of Bamdad, who demanded that the rich should divide their wives and their wealth with the poor. By adopting the doctrine of the Mazdakites, his intention evidently was to break the influence of the magnates and the growing aristocracy. These reforms led to his being deposed and imprisoned in the Castle of Oblivion in Khuzestan, and his younger brother Jamasp (Zamaspes) became king in 496. Kavad, however, quickly escaped and was given refuge by the Hephthalite king.

Jamasp (496–498) was installed on the Sassanid throne upon the deposition of Kavad I by members of the nobility. He was a good and kind king; he reduced taxes in order to improve the condition of the peasants and the poor. He was also an adherent of the mainstream Zoroastrian religion, diversions from which had cost Kavad I his throne and freedom. Jamasp's reign soon ended, however, when Kavad I, at the head of a large army granted to him by the Hephthalite king, returned to the empire's capital. Jamasp stepped down from his position and returned the throne to his brother. No further mention of Jamasp is made after the restoration of Kavad I, but it is widely believed that he was treated favourably at the court of his brother.

Second Golden Era
(This part of the article has not been confirmed as correct, as it surpasses the year 500 and therefore the Chapter 1 of Sine Roma).

The second golden era began soon after the collapse of the Hunnic Empire and second reign of Kavad I. In 504, the western Huns invaded Armenia from the Caucasus, but they were easily defeated by the Sasanians.

After the reign of Kavad I, his son Khosrow I, also known as Anushirvan ("with the immortal soul"; ruled 531–579), ascended to the throne. He is the most celebrated of the Sassanid rulers. Khosrow I is most famous for his reforms in the aging governing body of Sassanids. He introduced a rational system of taxation based upon a survey of landed possessions, which his father had begun, and he tried in every way to increase the welfare and the revenues of his empire. Previous great feudal lords fielded their own military equipment, followers, and retainers. Khosrow I developed a new force of dehqans, or "knights", paid and equipped by the central government and the bureaucracy, tying the army and bureaucracy more closely to the central government than to local lords.

Around 570, "Ma 'd-Karib", half-brother of the King of Yemen, requested Khosrow I's intervention. Khosrow I sent a fleet and a small army under a commander called Vahriz to the area near present Aden, and they marched against the capital San'a'l, which was occupied. Saif, son of Mard-Karib, who had accompanied the expedition, became King sometime between 575 and 577. Thus, the Sassanids were able to establish a base in South Arabia to control the sea trade with the east. Later, the south Arabian kingdom renounced Sassanid overlordship, and another Persian expedition was sent in 598 that successfully annexed southern Arabia as a Sassanid province, which lasted until the time of troubles after Khosrow II.

Khosrow I's reign witnessed the rise of the dihqans (literally, village lords), the petty landholding nobility who were the backbone of later Sassanid provincial administration and the tax collection system. Khosrow I was a great builder, embellishing his capital, expanding Mithridatia and founding new towns with the construction of new buildings. He rebuilt the canals and restocked the farms destroyed in the wars. He built strong fortifications at the passes and placed subject tribes in carefully chosen towns on the frontiers to act as guardians against invaders. He was tolerant of all religions, though he decreed that Zoroastrianism should be the official state religion, and was not unduly disturbed when one of his sons became a Christian.

After Khosrow I, Hormizd IV (579–590) took the throne. After Khosrow I, Hormizd IV (579–590) took the throne and his son Khosrow II (590–628) ascended the throne after him.

Khosrow II focused on the Sassanid Empire's eastern frontier. Circa 600, the Hephthalites had been raiding the Sassanid Empire as far as Spahan in central Iran. The Hephthalites issued numerous coins imitating the coinage of Khosrow II. In c. 606/607, Khosrow recalled Smbat IV Bagratuni from Persian Armenia and sent him to Iran to repel the Hephthalites. Smbat, with the aid of a Persian prince named Datoyean, repelled the Hephthalites from Persia, and plundered their domains in eastern Khorasan, where Smbat is said to have killed their king in single combat.

This golden era was paralleled by a blossoming of Persian art, music, and architecture.

more to come..

List of Sasanian Kings
(These are the names and reign dates).

House of Sasan

Ardashir I (224-242)

Shapur I (240- May 270) - Co-ruled with his father since 12 April 240.

Hormizd I (May 270- June 271)

Bahram I (June 271- September 274) - Died of disease/natural causes in September 274.

Bahram II (274-293)

Bahram III (293-293) - Possibly executed during the uprising which had been led by his own grand-uncle Narseh.

Narseh (293-302) - Enthroned after seizing power from Bahram III in a rebellion led against him.

Hormizd II (302-309) - Enthroned after abdicating the throne from his father.

Adur Narseh (309-309) - Deposed by Sasanian nobles because of his cruelty.

Shapur II (309-379) - After the death of his brother, Adar Narseh, Shapur II was still in his mother's womb when he was crowned.

Ardashir II (379-383)

Shapur III (383-388)

Bahram IV (388-399)

Yazdegerd I (399-420)

Shapur IV (420-420)

Khosrow (420-420)

Bahram V (420-438)

Yazdegerd II (438-457)

Hormizd III (457-459)

Peroz I (457-484)

Balash (484-488) - Two rebellions rose from two of Peroz's sons (his nephews):


 * The first rebellion was from Zarir, but he was unsuccessful and executed.
 * The second rebellion was from Kavad, who at first unsuccessful requested help from Hephthalites.

Kavad I (488-496) - Enthroned after leading a rebellion against his uncle Balash with assistance from Hephthalites.

Jamasp (496-498)

Kavad I (498- ) - Restored to the throne with the aid of Zarmihr Karen and the Hephthalites.

Source
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sasanian_Empire https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_monarchs_of_the_Sasanian_Empire