Pontos

The Kingdom of Pontos (281 BCE-235 CE) or later called Pontic Empire, was a Hellenistic-era kingdom, centered in the historical region of Pontus and ruled by the Mithridatic dynasty of Persian origin, which may have been directly related to Darius the Great and the Achaemenid dynasty. Culturally, the kingdom was Hellenized, with Greek the official language. Pontos was proclaimed by Mithridates I, in 281 BCE. The Kingdom of Pontos reached its largest extent under Mithridates VI the Great, who conquered Colchis, Cappadocia, Bithynia, Asia and the entire Second Macedonian Empire which included Greece and Thrace. After the Second Levantine War from 50-52 CE, Pontos gained western Syria and Egypt from the Parthian Empire. However, Egypt was conquered by the Carthaginian Empire that same year, in 53 CE. The Pontic Empire lasted until its conquest by the Sasanian Empire, under Ardashir I, in 235 CE.

As the greater part of the kingdom lay within the region of Cappadocia, which in early ages extended from the borders of Cilicia to the Euxine (Black Sea), the kingdom as a whole was at first called "Cappadocia by Pontos" or "Cappadocia by the Euxine", but afterwards simply "Pontos", the name Cappadocia henceforth being used to refer to the southern half of the region previously included under that name.

Mithridatic Dynasty of Cius (281-266 BCE)
The region of Pontos was originally part of the Persian satrapy of Cappadocia. The Persian dynasty which was to found this kingdom had, during the 4th century BCE, ruled the Greek city of Cius (or Kios) in Mysia, with its first known member being Mithridates of Cius. His son Ariobarzanes II became satrap of Phrygia. He became a strong ally of Athens and revolted against Artaxerxes, but was betrayed by his son Mithridates II of Cius. Mithridates II remained as ruler after Alexander's conquests and was a vassal to Antigonus I Monophthalmus, who briefly ruled Asia Minor after the Partition of Triparadisus. Mithridates was killed by Antigonus in 302 BCE under suspicion that he was working with his enemy Cassander. Antigonus planned to kill Mithridates' son, also called Mithridates (later named Ktistes, 'founder') but Demetrius I warned him, and he escaped to the east with six horsemen. Mithridates first went to the city of Cimiata in Paphlagonia and later to Amasya in Cappadocia. He ruled from 302 to 266 BCE, fought against Seleucus I and, in 281 (or 280) BCE, declared himself king of a state in northern Cappadocia and eastern Paphlagonia. He further expanded his kingdom to the river Sangrius in the west. His son Ariobarzanes captured Amastris in 279 BCE, its first important Black Sea port. Mithridates also allied with the newly arrived Galatians and defeated a force sent against him by Ptolemy I. Ptolemy had been expanding his territory in Asia Minor since the beginning of the First Syrian war against Antiochus in the mid-270s BCE and was allied with Mithridates' enemy, Heraclea Pontica.

Kingdom of Pontos (266-120 BCE)
We know little of Ariobarzanes' short reign, except that when he died his son Mithridates II (c. 250–189 BCE) became king and was attacked by the Galatians. Mithridates II received aid from Heraclea Pontica, who was also at war with the Galatians at this time. Mithridates went on to support Antiochus Hierax against his brother Seleucus II Callinicus. Seleucus was defeated in Anatolia by Hierax, Mithridates, and the Galatians. Mithridates also attacked Sinope in 220 BCE but failed to take the city. He married Seleucus II's sister and gave his daughter in marriage to Antiochus III the Great, to obtain recognition for his new kingdom and create strong ties with the Seleucid Empire. The sources are silent on Pontos for the years following the death of Mithridates II, when his son Mithridates III ruled (c. 220–198/88 BCE).

Pharnaces I of Pontos (189–159 BCE) was much more successful in his expansion of the kingdom at the expense of the Greek coastal cities. He joined in a war with Prusias I of Bithynia against Eumenes of Pergamon in 188 BCE, but the two made peace in 183 BCE after Bithynia suffered a series of reversals. He took Sinope in 182 BCE. Pharnaces also took the coastal cities of Cotyora, Pharnacia, and Trapezus in the east, effectively gaining control of most of the northern Anatolian coastline. Pharnaces fought against Eumenes of Pergamon and Ariarathes of Cappadocia. While initially successful, it seems he was overmatched by 179 BCE when he was forced to sign a treaty. He had to give up all lands he had obtained in Galatia, and Paphlagonia and the city of Tium, but he kept Sinope. Seeking to extend his influence to the north, Pharnaces allied with the cities in the Chersonesus and with other Black Sea cities such as Odessus on the Bulgarian coast. Pharnaces' brother, Mithridates IV Philopator Philadelphus adopted a relatively peaceful policy.

His successor was Mithridates V of Pontos Euergetes. Mithridates V married his daughter Laodice to the king of Cappadocia, Ariarathes VI of Cappadocia, and he also went on to invade Cappadocia, though the details of this war are unknown. Hellenization continued under Mithridates V. He was the first king to widely recruit Greek mercenaries in the Aegean, he was honored at Delos, and he depicted himself as Apollo on his coins. Mithridates was assassinated at Sinope in 121/0 BCE.

Because both the sons of Mithridates V, Mithridates VI and Mithridates Chrestus, were still children, Pontos now came under the regency of his wife Laodice. She favored Chrestus, and Mithridates VI escaped the Pontic court. Legend would later say this was the time he traveled through Asia Minor, building his resistance to poisons and learning all the languages of his subjects. He returned in 113 BCE to depose his mother; she was thrown into prison, and he eventually had his brother killed.

Under Mithridates VI the Great (120-55 BCE)
Mithridates VI Eupator, 'the Good Father', was far more ambitious than his predecessors. Mithridates began his expansion by inheriting Lesser Armenia from King Antipater (c. 115–106 BCE) and by conquering the Kingdom of Colchis. Colchis was an important region in Black Sea trade – rich with gold, wax, hemp, and honey. The cities of the Tauric Chersonesus now appealed for his aid against the Scythians in the north. Mithridates sent 6,000 men under General Diophantus. After various campaigns in the north of the Crimea he controlled all of the Chersonesus.

Mithridates VI the Great and Nicomedes III of Bithynia had become allies and both invaded Paphlagonia in 108 BCE and divided it amongst themselves. Mithridates VI also took a part of Galatia that had previously been part of his father's kingdom and intervened in Cappadocia, where his sister Laodice was queen. In 116 BCE the king of Cappadocia, Ariarathes VI, was murdered by the Cappadocian noble Gordius at the behest of Mithridates, and Laodice ruled as regent over the sons of Ariarathes until 102 BCE. After Nicomedes III of Bithynia married Laodice, he tried to intervene in the region by sending troops; Mithridates swiftly invaded, placing his nephew Ariarathes VII of Cappadocia on the throne of Cappadocia. War soon broke out between the two, and Mithridates invaded with a large Pontic army, but Ariarathes VII was murdered in 101 BCE before any battle was fought. Mithridates then installed his eight-year-old son, Ariarathes IX of Cappadocia as king, with Gordius as regent. In 97 BCE Cappadocia rebelled against Mithridates VI and called for Nicomedes III brother, Ariarathes VIII of Cappadocia, who was in Pergamon for his education, to return to Cappadocia to become king. Mithridates invaded Cappadocia and drove him out. Ariarathes VIII died in 96 BCE. With his death, his dynasty died out. Nicomedes III now feared that Mithridates would invade Bithynia, which he would then do in the same year.

In 95 BCE, Mithridates VI invaded the Kingdom of Galatia, to ensure his position in Anatolia. Galatia then became a client state of Pontos. Mithridates invaded the Kingdom of Pergamon and all other remaining Anatolian kingdoms by 94 BCE. He was very popular amongst citizens, as he promised to not collect taxes for five years.

In 88 BCE, Mithridates the Great launched a massive invasion into the Macedonian Empire. The war started, when the Pontic general Archelaus crossed the Bosporus, while general Dorylaeus crossed the Hellespont. Both armies met the Macedonian king at the battle of Philippopolis (88 BCE). The Macedonian king was defeated. Losing 30,000 soldiers, he retreated to Pella, while his general Ariston arrived with 30,000 fresh troops for reinforcement. Mithridates was not willing to waste any time and ordered his general Neoptolemus to invade Athens by sea. Even though Macedonia had a naval superiority, most of its fleet was located near Thessalonica, to avoid being outflanked through the sea. Neoptolemus landed near Corinth and quickly captured the Peloponnese Peninsula. Ariston swiftly moved to Attica and attacked Neoptolemus' army, which besieged Athens.

After the unsuccessful siege, in which Neoptolemus lost 15,000 men, the now outnumbered general retreated to the Peloponnese, though still being able to hold his position. However, because of Ariston's shift to the south, the northern army under the Macedonian king, was now outnumbered almost 2 to 1. Archelaus and Dorylaeus had taken this opportunity and attacked the Macedonian king in the Battle of Pella (87 BCE). The king was defeated, and after losing 30,000 men, he retreated to Thessalonica, where most of the Macedonian navy was located. Archelaus thus laid siege on Thessalonica and the king was now outnumbered 3 to 1.

Ariston was now ordered to move 30.000 of his 50.000 men to protect Thessalonica. Neoptolemus took this opportunity and defeated Ariston, killing 10.000 of his men near Athens. Ariston now retreated to the famous mountain pass of Thermopylae, where the outnumbered Spartans once engaged the Persians, while Neoptolemus captured Athens. However, Neoptolemus avoided the mountain pass and slowly advanced to the north, while Ariston had other choice but to retreat to Larissa. The general met Neoptolemus at the Battle of Larissa (87 BCE) and killed Ariston including most of his army. The king now had no other choice but to commit suicide. In early 86 BCE, the last remnants of Macedonian resistance surrendered. Macedonia was now completely under Pontic control.

During the invasion of Thrace, Archelaus sent Mithridates a letter about how profitable the location of Byzantion was, which connected the Aegean Sea with the Black Sea. Mithridates VI expanded the city and renamed it "Mithripolis", later serving as the largest city, but not the capital, of the Pontic Empire, though often referred to as the second capital of Pontos. Mithripolis thus became, after time, one of the most important cities in all of Europe and the Middle East.

Mithridates the Great established numerous vassal states, most dedicated to be ruled by his sons, which are listed as follows:


 * 1) Mithridates of Colchis: ruled the vassal kingdom of Colchis.
 * 2) Machares: ruled the vassal kingdom of Achaea.
 * 3) Arcathias: ruled the vassal kingdom of Epirus.
 * 4) Pharnaces II: ruled the Bosporan kingdom; successor of the Pontic Empire after Mithridates' death.
 * 5) Xiphares: ruled the vassal kingdom of Athens.
 * 6) Mithridates I of the Bosporus: ruled the vassal kingdom of Crete.
 * 7) Ariarathes IX of Cappadocia: ruled the vassal kingdom of Cappadocia; however, was actually ruled by general Gordius until he was an adult.

Mithridates' Brother, Mithridates Chrestus, was a first a co-ruler of the Pontic Empire and later vassal king of Macedonia.

Due to his great strategies in the Macedonian War (88-86 BCE), Archelaus was granted the vassal kingdom of Thessaly.

Mithridates VI the Great died in 55 BCE. His empire, however, experienced a short period of instability, continued under his son and successor, Pharnaces II.

First Dacian War (55-54 BCE)
In 55 BCE, the Dacian Kingdom, under Burebista had attacked the Moesian coastal cities of Pontos, starting the First Dacian War (55-54 BCE). In 54 BCE, the Pontic army clashed with the Dacians near these coastal cities and defeated the Dacians, pushing them back again, behind the Danube.

Cretan War (55-54 BCE)
Simultaneously, in 55 BCE, the Carthaginians used this instabilty to their advantage and had invaded Crete, during the Cretan War (55-54 BCE). However, Pontos was heavily defeated and was forced to sign an armstice, leaving Crete under Phoenician control. The Pontic vassal king of Crete, Mithridates I of the Bosporus, fled to the Pontic court and was then appointed the new vassal king of the Bosporan kingdom, in succession of the son of Pharnaces II. Before Mithridates I was king of the Bosporus, however, the son of Pharnaces II was shortly the vassal king until he himself was appointed prince and successor of the Pontic Empire.

The Volcanic Eruption of 44 BCE and aftermath (44-40 BCE)
In 44 BCE, written sources describe a period of unusually cold climate, crop failures, famine, disease, and unrest in the Mediterranean Region. These factors caused food scarcity in Pontos. The reason for this is a volcanic eruption in Okmok, Alaska.

Climate models suggest that seasonally averaged temperatures may have been as much as 7°C (13°F) below normal during the summer and autumn that followed the eruption of Okmok in 44 BCE.

The cooling effects lasted more than two years, resulting in the second and eighth coldest summertime temperatures of the past 2,500 years in 43 and 42 BCE, respectively, based on the European tree-ring climate proxy records. This short "dark age" lasted until around 40 BCE.

Second Levantine War (50-52 CE)
After the death of Jesus Christ by stoning in 50 CE (and claimed resurrection thereafter), a revolt broke out in Judea, known as the Great Christian Revolt. However, the Christians knew that the Parthian Empire could easily crush their rebellion, which controlled the region. The Christian general, *Malachi, asked the Pontic king for support. The king saw this as a chance to conquer Syria from the Parthians, while their ally would get Isreal.

Meanwhile, a Parthian army, numbering 20,000 men, was coming close to Jerusalem. Initially wanting to fight, *Malachi got rejected by the apostles for being a warmonger. However, when the Parthians saw an army with Pontic symbols, the latter got completely confused and, as a result, the Parthians were completely crushed, not expecting an attack from Pontos, during the Battle of Jerusalem (51 CE). Meanwhile, in the north, the Pontic army launched a surprise attack and captured Antioch, Edessa and Palmyra, by 52 CE. After capturing Tigranocerta, the two Pontic armies, each numbering around 50,000 men, were both marching to the city of Hatra.

However, due to a misconception, the Parthians believed it was only one force that marched east, and thus, the king sent one army, consisting of 80,000 men. The southern Pontic force, led by their king, has reached the city first and began its formation. However, when the Parthians were about to charge, the 50,000 strong army smashed them from behind, while the southern force now began to charge as well. The Parthians were completely annihilated from both sides. 70,000 men were killed in the Battle of Hatra (52 CE), and 10,000 captured. The Parthians were completely exhausted, and were forced to sue for peace.

In late 52 CE, the Pontic Empire and the Parthian Empire signed a peace treaty. The Bishopric of Jerusalem asserted control of all of former Judea. Pontos gained control over Antioch, Syria, Nabataea, the city of Ascalon, and Egypt. The Hasmonean Jews were to be exiled into the Pontic client state of Ituraea. Having no other choice, the Parthians agreed, marking the end of the Second Levantine War (50-52 CE).

Egyptian War (52-53 CE)
However, as Egypt was isolated from the Pontic mainland, the region turned out to be very unstable and hard to govern. In 52 CE, the Carthaginian Empire used this chance and attacked Egypt. The Pontic king, was completely taken by suprise, and Egypt was literally overrun, with Alexandria falling in late 52, due to a heavy naval blockade. Meanwhile, the Phoenicians in the Levant were taking a rather defensive position. The Pontic armed clashed with the Phoenicians at the city of Oyat in 52 CE. Pontos, just recovering from the war with Parthia, was again completely defeated. The Carthaginians almost managed to capture Antioch. However, by that point, the Phoenicians had already reached their goal and made a peace treaty with Pontos. Carthage would assert control over Egypt, while Syria would remain under Pontic control.

Second and Third Dacian War (86-89 CE)
In the Winter of 86-87 CE, the army of the Dacian king Duras led by general Diurpaneus attacked the Pontic region of Moesia, during the Second Dacian War (86-87 CE). The Pontic army was ambushed and defeated at the First Battle of Tapae by Diurpaneus, who was subsequently renamed Decebalus (Dacian for "the Brave"), and who, as a consequence, was chosen to be the new king of Dacia.

In 88 CE, a Pontic counter-offensive was launched, and the Pontic army defeated the Dacians at their outlying fortress of Sarmizegetusa, also at Tapae, near the current village of Bucova. After this battle, Decebalus, now the king of the four reunited arms of the Dacians, asked for peace, though, which was refused. The Siege of Sarmizegtusa was laid that same year, and continued until 89 CE. Rather than being captured, only to be executed at the Pontic court, Decebalus committed suicide. After Decebalus' death, the Dacians surrendered to Pontos and became a client state. This war is later known as the Third Dacian War (88-89 CE).

Costobocian War (170-171 CE)
Possibly because of Sarmatian/Iazygian pressure in the north and east, in 170 CE, the Costoboci, a possibly Thracian people from northern Dacia, invaded the Pontic Empire. First raiding the client state of Dacia, then crossing the Danube, the Costoboci burnt down a district of Histria which was thus abandoned. Their attacks also affected Callatis, and the walls of the city required repairs. The raiders then moved south, through Macedonia, plundering the ancient tombs at Pella. Their offensive continued southwards into Thessaly. However, a massive Pontic army approached the Costoboci near Larissa, and the Costoboci were defeated and subdued in 171 CE.

Sasanian threat and Downfall (232-235 CE)
After the Sassanid invasion of Armenia in 232 CE, the Pontic Empire feared another attack. The rising Sasanian Empire had charged into Pontos in 233 CE, starting the Pontic-Sasanian War. This war would continue until the defeat of Pontus in 235 CE during the Siege of Mithripolis. Though not all of the Pontic Empire was now under Sasanian rule. The Greek and Illyrian kingdoms, as well as Dacia managed to gain independence, while Thrace became a Sassanid vassal state.

List of Pontic kings
These are the names and reign dates.

Mithridatic dynasty

Mithridates I Ctistes (281-266 BCE)

Ariobarzanes (266-250 BCE)

Mithridates II (250-210 BCE)

Mithridates III (210-190 BCE)

Pharnaces I (190-155 BCE)

Mithridates IV Philopator Philadelphus (155-150 BCE)

Mithridates V Euergetes (150-120 BCE)

Mithridates VI Eupator Dionysus "the Great" (120-55 BCE)

Pharnaces II (55 BCE-

Source
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kingdom_of_Pontus

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mithridatic_dynasty

https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Costoboci

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Decebalus

https://www.dailymail.co.uk/sciencetech/article-8447745/Massive-volcanic-eruption-Alaska-43-BC-triggered-global-climate-shock.html