Parthian Empire

The Parthian Empire (247 BCE – 227 CE), also known as the Arsacid Empire, was a major Iranian political and cultural power in ancient Iran. Its latter name comes from its founder, Arsaces I, who led the Parni tribe in conquering the region of Parthia in Iran's northeast, then a satrapy (province) under Andragoras, in rebellion against the Seleucid Empire. After time the Seleucid Empire lost more and more land to the Parthians, eventually the last Seleucid territory got conquered by the Armenians in 83 BCE. In 53 BCE Parthia occupied all of Armenia. In 40 BCE, the Parthian Empire subdued all settlements along the Mediterranean coast as far south as the city of Shechem. Shortly afterwards, the Parthians conquered the Demetrian Kingdom of Egypt. However, Parthia soon began to decline, after the Second Levantine War (50-52 CE), in which Parthia lost Syria and Egypt to Pontos, and Judea to the Bishopric of Jerusalem.

The Kingdom of Parsa began subjugating its surrounding territories in 224 CE. Ardashir I defeated the Parthians at the Battle of Hormozdgān on 28 April 224 CE, perhaps at a site near Isfahan, defeating him and establishing the Sasanian Empire. From 224-226 CE the Sasanians would conquer all of mainland Parthia, eventually conquering Mesopotamia and Egypt in 227 CE. The Persians fully occupied the Kingdom of Pontos, by 235 CE.

Origins and foundation (247-170 BCE)
Before Arsaces I established the Arsacid Dynasty in 247 BCE, he was chieftain of the Parni, an ancient Central-Asian tribe of Iranian peoples and one of several nomadic tribes within the confederation of the Dahae. The Parni most likely spoke an eastern Iranian language, in contrast to the northwestern Iranian language spoken at the time in Parthia. The latter was a northeastern province, first under the Achaemenid, and then the Seleucid empires. After invading the region, the Parni adopted Parthian as the official court language, speaking it alongside Middle Persian, Aramaic, Greek, Babylonian, Sogdian and other languages in the multilingual territories they would invade.

For a time, Arsaces I (r. 247-211 BCE) strengthened his position in Parthia and Hyrcania by taking advantage of the invasion of Seleucid territory in the west by Ptolemy III Euergetes (r. 246–222 BCE) of Egypt. This conflict with Ptolemy, the Third Syrian War (246–241 BCE), also allowed Diodotus I to rebel and form the Greco-Bactrian Kingdom in Central Asia. The latter's successor, Diodotus II, formed an alliance with Arsaces against the Seleucids, but Arsaces was temporarily driven from Parthia by the forces of Seleucus II Callinicus (r. 246–225 BCE). After spending some time in exile among the nomadic Apasiacae tribe, Arsaces led a counterattack and recaptured Parthia. Seleucus II's successor, Antiochus III the Great (r. 222–187 BCE), was unable to immediately take revenge because his troops were busy in putting down the rebellion of Molon in Media.

The sucessor of Arsaces I, was Artabanus I or also called Arsaces II (r. 211-185 BCE). A fictitious claim was later made from the 2nd-century BCE onwards by the Parthians, which represented them as descendants of the Achaemenid king of kings, Artaxerxes II of Persia ( r . 404–358 BCE).

Antiochus III launched a massive campaign to retake Parthia and Bactria in 209 BCE. Despite some victories he was unsuccessful, but did negotiate a peace settlement with Arsaces II. The latter was granted the title of king (Greek: basileus) in return for his submission to Antiochus III as his superior and being a client state of the Seleucids. Priapatius (r. 185–170 BCE) succeeded Arsaces II, and Phraates I (r. 170–167 BCE) eventually ascended the throne. Parthia would exist as a client state and not be freed from Seleucid rule until the death of Antiochus III in 161 BCE, under the reign of Mithridates I.

Expansion and strengthening (170 BCE-97 BCE)
Phraates I is recorded as expanding Parthia's control past the Gates of Alexander and occupied Apamea Ragiana. The locations of these are unknown. Yet the greatest expansion of Parthian power and territory took place during the reign of his brother and successor, who freed Parthia from Seleucid rule, Mithridates I (r. 167–132 BCE), which is also compared to Cyrus the Great (d. 530 BCE), founder of the Achaemenid Empire.

Relations between Parthia and Greco-Bactria deteriorated after the death of Diodotus II, when Mithridates' forces captured two eparchies of the latter kingdom, then under Eucratides I (r. 170–145 BCE). Turning his sights on the Seleucid Empire, Mithridates invaded Media and occupied Ecbatana in 148 or 147 BC; the region had been destabilized by a recent Seleucid suppression of a revolt there led by Timarchus. This victory was followed by the Parthian conquest of Babylonia in Mesopotamia, where Mithridates had coins minted at Seleucia in 141 BCE and held an official investiture ceremony. While Mithridates I retired to Hyrcania, his forces subdued the kingdoms of Elymais and Characene and occupied Susa. By this time, Parthian power extended as far east as the Indus River. The Seleucids however only have their west Mesopotamian part left under their control.

Whereas Hecatompylos had served as the first Parthian capital, Mithridates I established royal residences at Seleucia, Ecbatana, Ctesiphon and his newly founded city, Mithradatkert (Nisa, Turkmenistan), where the tombs of the Arsacid kings were built and kept. Ecbatana became the main summertime residence for the Arsacid royalty. Ctesiphon may not have become the official capital until around 90 BCE. It became the site of the royal coronation ceremony and the representational city of the Arsacids.

The Seleucids were unable to take revenge immediately as general Diodotus Tryphon led a rebellion at the capital Antioch in 142 BCE. However, by 140 BCE Demetrius II Nicator was able to launch a counter-invasion against the Parthians in Mesopotamia. Despite early successes, the Seleucids were defeated and Demetrius himself was captured by Parthian forces and taken to Hyrcania. There Mithridates I treated his captive with great hospitality; he even married his daughter Rhodogune of Parthia to Demetrius.

Antiochus VII Sidetes (r. 136–129 BCE), a brother of Demetrius II Nicator, assumed the Seleucid throne. After defeating Diodotus Tryphon, Antiochus VII initiated a campaign in 130 BCE to retake Mesopotamia, now under the rule of Phraates II (r. 132–127 BCE). The Parthian general Indates was defeated along the Great Zab, followed by a local uprising where the Parthian governor of Babylonia was killed. Antiochus conquered Babylonia and occupied Susa, where he minted coins. After advancing his army into Media, the Parthians pushed for peace, which Antiochus VII refused to accept unless the Arsacids gave up all lands to him except Parthia proper, paid heavy tribute, and released his father Demetrius I from captivity. Arsaces released Demetrius and sent him to Syria, but refused the other demands. By spring 129 BCE, the Medes were in open revolt against Antiochus VII, whose army had exhausted the resources of the countryside during winter. While attempting to put down the revolts, the main Parthian force swept into the region and killed Antiochus at the Battle of Ecbatana in 129 BCE. His body was sent back to Syria in a silver coffin.

While the Parthians regained the territories lost in the west, another threat arose in the east. In 177–176 BCE the nomadic confederation of the Xiongnu dislodged the nomadic Yuezhi from their homelands in what is now Gansu province in Northwest China; the Yuezhi then migrated west into Bactria and displaced the Saka (Scythian) tribes. The Saka were forced to move further west, where they invaded the Parthian Empire's northeastern borders.

Some of the Saka were enlisted in Phraates' I forces against Antiochus. However, they arrived too late to engage in the conflict. When Phraates II refused to pay their wages, the Saka revolted, which he tried to put down with the aid of former Seleucid soldiers, yet they too abandoned Phraates II and joined sides with the Saka. Phraates II marched against this combined force, but he was killed in battle. Mithridates II (r. 121–91 BCE) later recovered the lands lost to the Saka in Sakastan.

Following the Seleucid withdrawal from Mesopotamia, the Parthian governor of Babylonia, Himerus, was ordered by the Arsacid court to conquer Characene, then ruled by Hyspaosines from Charax Spasinu. When this failed, Hyspaosines invaded Babylonia in 127 BCE and occupied Seleucia. Yet by 122 BCE, Mithridates II forced Hyspaosines out of Babylonia and made the kings of Characene vassals under Parthian suzerainty. After Mithridates II extended Parthian control further west, occupying Dura-Europos in 113 BCE, he became involved in a conflict with the Kingdom of Armenia. His forces defeated and deposed Artavasdes I of Armenia in 97 BCE, taking his son Tigranes II hostage, who would later become Tigranes II "the Great" of Armenia (r. 95–55 BCE).

The Indo-Parthian Kingdom, located in modern-day Afghanistan and Pakistan made an alliance with the Parthian Empire in the 1st century BCE. Claims exist that these two states considered each other political equals. After the Greek philosopher Apollonius of Tyana visited the court of Vardanes I (r. 40–47 CE) in 42 CE, Vardanes I provided him with the protection of a caravan as he traveled to Indo-Parthia. When Apollonius reached Indo-Parthia's capital Taxila, his caravan leader read Vardanes' I official letter, perhaps written in Parthian, to an Indian official who treated Apollonius with great hospitality.

Following the diplomatic venture of Zhang Qian into Central Asia during the reign of Emperor Wu of Han (r. 141–87 BCE), the Han Empire of China sent a delegation to Mithridates II's court in 121 BCE. The Han embassy opened official trade relations with Parthia via the Silk Road yet did not achieve a desired military alliance against the confederation of the Xiongnu. Pearls were a highly valued import from China, while the Chinese purchased Parthian spices, perfumes, and fruits. Exotic animals were also given as gifts from the Arsacid to Han courts; in 87 CE the King of Parthia sent lions and Persian gazelles to Emperor Zhang of Han (r. 75–88 CE). The merchants of Sogdia, speaking an Eastern Iranian language, served as the primary middlemen of this vital silk trade between Parthia and Han China.

Parthian Dark Age and Armenia (97 BCE-50 CE)
The Yuezhi Kushan Empire in northern India largely guaranteed the security of Parthia's eastern border. Thus, from the mid-1st century BCE onwards, the Arsacid court focused on securing the western border.

In 97 BCE Mithridates II subjugated Armenia. It would remain a Parthian vassal until the end of the 80's BCE.

Following the rule of Mithridates II, his empire would be split between Orodes I (r. 91-79 BCE) Mithridates III (r. 91-77 BCE). The latter one would unite Parthia in 79 BCE. They reigned during a period coined in scholarship as the "Parthian Dark Age," due to the lack of clear information on the events of this period in the empire, except a series of, apparently overlapping, reigns. This system of split monarchy weakened Parthia, allowing Tigranes II of Armenia to annex Parthian territory in western Mesopotamia in 83 BCE (also annexing the last remains of the Seleucid Empire). This land would not be restored to Parthia until the reign of Sinatruces I (r. 77-70 BCE).

Tigranes the Younger, son of Tigranes II of Armenia, failed to usurp the Armenian throne from his father. He fled to Phraates III (r. 70-57 BCE) and convinced him to replace Tigranes II with him, which succeeded.

Phraates III was assassinated by his sons Orodes II of Parthia and Mithridates IV of Parthia, after which Orodes II turned on Mithridates IV, forcing him to flee from Media to Syria. Mithridates IV managed to conquer Babylonia, and minted coins at Seleucia until 54 BCE. In that year, Orodes' general, known only as Surena after his noble family's clan name, recaptured Seleucia, and Mithridates was executed.

From 54-53 BCE, one year after Tigranes II's death, the forces of Orodes II managed to occupy all of Armenia, making it a client state of the Empire. Orodes II, had put his younger son Phraates IV on the Armenian throne, ending the Artaxiad dynasty and beginning the Arsacid dynasty of Armenia.

The Volcanic Eruption of 44 BCE and aftermath (44-40 BCE)
In 44 BCE, written sources describe a period of unusually cold climate, crop failures, famine, disease, and unrest in the Mediterranean Region. These factors caused food scarcity in Parthia, which halted further expansions for a time. The reason for this is a volcanic eruption in Okmok, Alaska.

Climate models suggest that seasonally averaged temperatures may have been as much as 7°C (13°F) below normal during the summer and autumn that followed the eruption of Okmok in 44 BCE.

The cooling effects lasted more than two years, resulting in the second and eighth coldest summertime temperatures of the past 2,500 years in 43 and 42 BCE, respectively, based on the European tree-ring climate proxy records. This short "dark age" lasted until around 40 BCE.

Conquest of Egypt and Jewish revolt (40 BCE-50 CE)
In 40 BCE, the Parthian prince Pacorus I subdued all Egyptian settlements along the Levantine coast as far south as the city of Shechem, initiating the Second Egyptian War (40-38 BCE). In reaction to this, *Demetrius VI sent an army to meet the Parthians at Jerusalem. However, the Carthaginians, took this oppurtunity and invaded Syria as far as Damascus. After Pacorus I, defeated the Demetrians at Jerusalem, he immediately sent his army to Damascus, only to be defeated by the Phoenicians. Pacorus, was forced to sign an armstice, and thus, the Carthaginian territory in Phoenicia now reached from the cities of Arwad, to Damascus and all the way south to Dor, marking the end of the Second Levantine War (40-39 BCE).

The Egyptians, however, are in decline and had just experienced a great flood and a famine, causing shortages of soldiers and supplies. Pacorus I, decisively outflanked the low-moraled Demetrians with their Parthian cavalry at the Battle of Gaza in 39 BCE, killing their entire army of 20,000 men, including the Egyptian general. The Parthians, now with reinforcements from the king Orodes II, swept into Egypt and quickly overran the almost non-protected cities of Paramoun (Pelusium), and Memphis. In 38 BCE, Pacorus clashed with 20,000 Egyptian soldiers at Sais, however, *Demetrius VI, was again defeated and began fortifying in Alexandria.

In 39 BCE, the Carthaginian Empire invaded the Egyptian vassal kingdom of Cyrenaica, during the Cyrenaican War (39-38 BCE). The Phoenicians captured as far as the city of Amunia (Paraitonion), annexing the region from the declining Demetrian Kingdom, which was now attacked from both sides. Meanwhile, Pacorus I destroyed the remaining Egyptian army and had stormed their capital, during the Siege of Alexandria in 38 BCE. Knowing that he would be taken to Orodes' II court in Parthia, (and likely executed thereafter), *Demetrius VI and his son *Demetrius VII both committed suicide in 38 BCE. Orodes II submitted the throne to Pacorus I, in 37 BCE. Egypt itself became a Parthian vassal kingdom, as well as Carthaginian Cyrenaica.

Around 27 BCE, Tiridates II of Parthia briefly overthrew Pacorus I, who was able to quickly reestablish his rule with the aid of Scythian nomads.

''In OTL, Pacorus I, the eldest son of Orodes II was killed by the Romans. This caused his younger brother Phraates IV to continue the dynasty. However, because Pacorus I would ascend the throne in TTL, it's impossible to show his descendants as he hadn't any in OTL.''

During the reign the next king, two Jewish commoners and brothers, Anilai and Asinai from Nehardea (near modern Fallujah, Iraq), led a revolt against the Parthian governor of Babylonia. After defeating the latter, the two were granted the right to govern the region by the Parthian King, who feared further rebellion elsewhere. Anilai's Parthian wife poisoned Asinai out of fear he would attack Anilai over his marriage to a gentile. Following this, Anilai became soon after embroiled in an armed conflict with the Parthian King, who eventually defeated him. With the Jewish regime removed, the native Babylonians began to harass the local Jewish community, forcing them to emigrate to Seleucia. When that city rebelled against Parthian rule in 35–36 CE, the Jews were expelled again, this time by the local Greeks and Aramaeans. The exiled Jews fled to Ctesiphon, Nehardea, and Nisibis.

Parthia would retain firm control over Armenia through the Arsacid Dynasty of Armenia. Even after the fall of the Parthian Empire, the Arsacid line lived on through the Armenian kings. However, not only did the Arsacid line continue through the Armenians, it as well continued through the Georgian kings with the Arsacid dynasty of Iberia, and for many centuries afterwards in Caucasian Albania through the Arsacid Dynasty of Caucasian Albania.

Second Levantine War (50-52 CE)
After the death of Jesus Christ by stoning in 50 CE (and claimed resurrection thereafter), a revolt broke out in Judea, known as the Great Christian Revolt. However, the Christians knew that the Parthian Empire could easily crush their rebellion, which controlled the region. The Christian general, *Malachi, asked the Pontic king for support. The king saw this as a chance to conquer Syria from the Parthians, while their ally would get Isreal.

Meanwhile, a Parthian army, numbering 20,000 men, was coming close to Jerusalem. Initially wanting to fight, *Malachi got rejected by the apostles for being a warmonger. However, when the Parthians saw an army with Pontic symbols, the latter got completely confused and, as a result, the Parthians were completely crushed, not expecting an attack from Pontos, during the Battle of Jerusalem (51 CE). Meanwhile, in the north, the Pontic army launched a surprise attack and captured Antioch, Edessa and Palmyra, by 52 CE. After capturing Tigranocerta, the two Pontic armies, each numbering around 50,000 men, were both marching to the city of Hatra.

However, due to a misconception, the Parthians believed it was only one force that marched east, and thus, the king sent one army, consisting of 80,000 men. The southern Pontic force, led by their king, has reached the city first and began its formation. However, when the Parthians were about to charge, the 50,000 strong army smashed them from behind, while the southern force now began to charge as well. The Parthians were completely annihilated from both sides. 70,000 men were killed in the Battle of Hatra (52 CE), and 10,000 captured. The Parthians were completely exhausted, and were forced to sue for peace.

In late 52 CE, the Pontic Empire and the Parthian Empire signed a peace treaty. The Bishopric of Jerusalem asserted control of all of former Judea. Pontos gained control over Antioch, Syria, Nabataea, the city of Ascalon, and Egypt. The Hasmonean Jews were to be exiled into the Pontic client state of Ituraea. Having no other choice, the Parthians agreed, marking the end of the Second Levantine War (50-52 CE). This was the beginning of the end of Parthian hegemony.

Around 72 CE the Alans invaded Parthia's eastern territories.

Sassanid expansion and Downfall (224-227 CE)
From 224 CE onwards, Ardashir I, the local Iranian ruler of Persis (modern Fars Province, Iran) from Istakhr began subjugating the surrounding territories in disregarding of Arsacid rule. He confronted the Parthian King at the Battle of Hormozdgān on 28 April 224 CE, perhaps at a site near Isfahan, defeating him and establishing the Sasanian Empire. There is evidence, however, that suggests, the king continued to mint coins at Seleucia as late as 227 CE.

From 224-226 CE the Sasanians would conquer all of mainland Parthia, eventually conquering Mesopotamia in 227, and Armenia in 232 CE.

The Sasanians would also attempt to restore the boundaries of the Achaemenid Empire by conquering the Kingdom of Pontos in 233 CE during the reign of Ardashir I (r. 205–242 CE).

Relations with the Kingdom of Pontos
After the Parthian Empire subjugated all of Armenia in 53 BCE (a Pontic ally) relations heavily dropped. Still, there was no major war against Pontus, only a few skirmishes. This was mostly due to the already overextended Parthian Empire which couldn't handle much more territory, especially wars against equally strong rivals. Similar to Pontos which was too weak to start a war with the Parthians.

However, this changed in 50 CE, when a revolt Christian revolt broke out in Israel, caused by the execution of Jesus. The Parthians were completely taken by suprise after they met with the Pontic-Christian army. The exhausted Parthians lost the war, and had to submit most of their west Meoapotamian holdings to Pontos, among them, Egypt and Syria. Parthia was never again able to revenge themselves against Pontos, as Parthia was now only a shadow of its former self.

List of Parthian Kings
(These are the names and reign dates).

Arsacid Dynasty

Arsaces I (247-211 BCE)

Artabanus I or also called Arsaces II (211-185 BCE)

Priapatius (185-170 BCE)

Phraates I (170-167 BCE)

Mithridates I (167-132 BCE)

Phraates II (132-127 BCE) - Killed in battle against invading nomads in the east.

Artabanus II (127-126 BCE) - Killed in battle against invading nomads in the east.

Vologases I (126-122 BCE)

Artabanus (III) (122-121 BCE)

Mithridates II (121-91 BCE)

- After the death of Mithridates II, the empire was split in half between two kings.

Mithridates III (91-77 BCE) and Orodes I (91-79 BCE)

- After Mithridates III defeated Orodes I in 79 BCE, the empire was unified under his rule.

Sinatruces I (77-70 BCE)

Phraates III (70-57 BCE) - Murdered by his sons Orodes II and Mithridates IV.

- After the death of Phraates III, the empire was again split in half between two kings.

Mithridates IV (57-54 BCE) - Executed by his brother Orodes II. And Orodes II (57-37 BCE)

- Orodes II, executed his brother Mithridates IV and unified Parthia under his rule in 54 BCE.

Pacorus I (37-30 and 25-? BCE)

Tiridates I of Parthia (30-25 BCE)

''In OTL, Parcorus I, the eldest son of Orodes II was killed by the Romans. This caused his younger brother Phraates IV to continue the dynasty. However, because Pacorus I would ascend the throne in TTL, it's impossible to show his descendants as he hadn't any in OTL.''

For reference, this is the OTL continued dynasty from Phraates IV (38-30 and 25-2 BCE):

Phraates V and Musa (2 BCE-4 CE)

Orodes III (4-6 CE)

None (6-8 CE)

- In 8 CE, the empire was split between two kings.

Artabanus III (8-40CE) and Vonones I (8-12 BCE) - Killed attempting to escape imprisonment.

- In 12 CE, Artabanus III killed Vonones I and unified the empire.

- In 20 CE, the empire had split once again between two rulers.

Artabanus III (8-40CE) and Gondophares (20-45 CE)

-> Vardanes I (40-47 CE)    -> Four Rulers (45-95 CE)

- In 45 CE, the empire had split into three parts, each ruled by a king.

-> Vardanes I (40-47 CE) -> Gotarzes II (45-51 CE)        -> Four Rulers (45-95 CE)

- In 47 CE, Vardanes I was assassinated at the instigation of a party of Parthian nobles.

-> Gotarzes II (40-51 CE)  -> Four Rulers (45-95 CE)

-> Vologases I (51-77 CE)

(From 63 CE onwards, the Arsacid dynasty ruled in Armenia) (see Kingdom of Armenia (Arsacid)).

- After the death of Vologases I in 77 CE, the empire had split in three parts.

-> Parcorus II (77-115 CE)        -> Artabanus IV (77-81 CE)  -> Four Rulers (45-95 CE)

- In 81 CE, Parcorus II defeated Artabanus IV.

-> Parcorus II (77-115 CE)     -> Four Rulers (45-95 CE)

- In 95 CE, the breakaway kingdom of Punjab led by the Four Rulers collapsed.

Parcorus II (77-115 CE)

- In 109 CE, the empire was split in half between Parcorus II and Osroes I.

-> Parcorus II (77-115 CE)        -> Osroes I (109-130 CE)

- In 116 CE, the son of Osroes I, Parthamaspates formed a breakaway state, which though was defeated in 118 CE.

-> Vologases III (115-148 CE)  -> Osroes I (109-130 CE)

-> Mithridates IV (130-145 CE)

-> Vologases IV (145-191 CE)

- In 148 CE, Vologases IV defeated Vologases III and thus united Parthia.

Vologases IV (145-191 CE)

- In 190 CE, Osroes II launched an rebellion. One year later, Vologases V would replace Vologases IV.

-> Osroes II (190-195 CE)       -> Vologases V (191- CE)

- In 195 CE, the rebellion of Osroes II was crushed.

Vologases V (191-208 CE)

Vologases VI (208- CE)

- In 213 CE, the empire had split into two parts.

-> Artabanus V (213-226 CE)       -> Vologases VI (208-227 CE)

-> Defeated*                                 -> Defeated by the Sasanians in 225 CE.

* by the Sasanians in 226 CE.

Source
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Parthian_Empire

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_Parthian_kings

https://www.dailymail.co.uk/sciencetech/article-8447745/Massive-volcanic-eruption-Alaska-43-BC-triggered-global-climate-shock.html

Flag credits
This flag was NOT made by myself. Credits to https://www.deviantart.com/valgryn/art/Parthia-Flag-550504536 for making this beautiful flag.