Carthaginian Empire

Carthage (814 BCE- CE) was an ancient Phoenician city-state and Civilization situated in present-day Tunisia. Established around 814 BCE as a settlement of Tyre, inside hundreds of years it developed to turn into the center of the Carthaginian Empire, a significant commercial and naval power that controlled the western Mediterranean until the 5th Century CE.

Carthage was one of the longest lasting empires in all of history, lasting over 1,200 years. However, Carthage first became independent of the Phoenicians in 650 BCE, which would still be almost 1,100 years.

Foundation legends
The particular date, conditions, and inspirations concerning Carthage's establishing are obscure. All surviving records of Carthage's establishment originate from Greek writing, which are commonly legendary in nature yet may have some basis in fact.

The standard establishment legend over all sources is that the city was established by settlers from the ancient Phoenician city-state of Tyre, driven by its ousted princess Dido (also called Queen Elissa or Alissar). Elissa's brother, Pygmalion, had killed her husband, the high priest of the city, and taken power as a tyrant. Elissa and her allies escape his rule and establish Carthage, which turns into a prosperous city under her rule as queen.

Settlement as Tyrian colony (c. 814 BCE)
To facilitate their commercial ventures, the Phoenicians established numerous colonies and trading posts along the coasts of the Mediterranean. Organized in fiercely independent city-states, the Phoenicians lacked the numbers or even the desire to expand overseas; most colonies had fewer than 1,000 inhabitants, and only a few, including Carthage, would grow larger. Motives for colonization were usually practical, such as seeking safe harbors for their merchant fleets, maintaining a monopoly on an area's natural resources, satisfying the demand for trade goods, and finding areas where they could trade freely without outside interference. Over time many Phoenicians also sought to escape their tributary obligations to foreign powers that had subjugated the Phoenician homeland. Another motivating factor was competition with the Greeks, who became a nascent maritime power and began establishing colonies across the Mediterranean and the Black Sea.

The first Phoenician colonies in the western Mediterranean grew up on the two paths to Iberia's mineral wealth: along the northwest African coast and on Sicily, Sardinia, and the Balearic Islands. As the largest and wealthiest city-state among the Phoenicians, Tyre led the way in settling or controlling coastal areas. Strabo claims that the Tyrians alone founded three hundred colonies on the west African coast; though clearly an exaggeration, many colonies did arise in Tunisia, Morocco, Algeria, Iberia, and to a much lesser extent, on the arid coast of Libya. They were usually established as trading stations at intervals of about 30 to 50 kilometres along the African coast.

By the time they gained a foothold in Africa, the Phoenicians were already present in Cyprus, Crete, Corsica, the Balearic Islands, Sardinia, and Sicily, as well as on the European mainland, in what are in OTL today Genoa and Marseilles. Foreshadowing the later Sicilian Wars, settlements in Crete and Sicily continually clashed with the Greeks, and Phoenician control over all of Sicily was brief. Nearly all these areas would come under the leadership and protection of Carthage, which eventually founded cities of its own, especially after the decline of Tyre and Sidon.

The site of Carthage was likely chosen by the Tyrians for several reasons. It was located in the central shore of the Gulf of Tunis, which gave it access to the Mediterranean sea while shielding it from the region's infamously violent storms. It was also close to the strategically vital Strait of Sicily, a key bottleneck for maritime trade between the east and west. The terrain proved as invaluable as the geography. The city was built on a hilly, triangular peninsula backed by the Lake of Tunis, which provided abundant supplies of fish and a place for safe harbor. The peninsula was connected to the mainland by a narrow strip of land, which combined with the rough surrounding terrain, made the city easily defensible; a citadel was built on Byrsa, a low hill overlooking the sea. Finally, Carthage would be conduit of two major trade routes: one between the Tyrian colony of Cadiz in southern Spain, which supplied raw materials for manufacturing in Tyre, and the other between North Africa and the northern Mediterranean, namely Sicily, Italy, and Greece.

Independence, expansion and hegemony (c. 650-480 BCE)
In contrast to most Phoenician colonies, Carthage grew larger and more quickly thanks to its combination of favorable climate, arable land, and lucrative trade routes. Within just one century of its founding, its population rose to 30,000. Meanwhile, its mother city, which for centuries was the preeminent economic and political center of Phoenician civilization, saw its status begin to wane in the seventh century BCE, following a succession of sieges by the Babylonians. By this time, its Carthaginian colony had become immensely wealthy from its strategic location and extensive trade network. Unlike many other Phoenician city-states and dependencies, Carthage grew prosperous not only from maritime commerce but from its proximity to fertile agricultural land and rich mineral deposits. As the main hub for trade between Africa and the rest of the ancient world, it also provided a myriad of rare and luxurious goods, including terracotta figurines and masks, jewelry, delicately carved ivories, ostrich eggs, and a variety of foods and wine.

Carthage's growing economic prominence coincided with a nascent national identity. Although Carthaginians remained staunchly Phoenician in their customs and faith, by at least the seventh century BCE, they had developed a distinct Phoenician culture infused with local influences. Certain deities became more prominent in the Carthaginian pantheon than in Phoenicia; into the fifth century BCE, the Carthaginians were worshiping Greek deities such as Demeter. Carthage may have also retained religious practices that had long fallen out of favor in Tyre, such as child sacrifice. Similarly, it spoke its own Carthaginian dialect of Phoenician, which also reflected contributions by neighboring peoples.

These trends most likely precipitated the colony's emergence as an independent polity. Though the specific date and circumstances are unknown, Carthage most likely became independent around 650 BCE, when it embarked on its own colonization efforts across the western Mediterranean. It nonetheless maintained amicable cultural, political, and commercial ties with its founding city and the Phoenician homeland; it continued to receive migrants from Tyre, and for a time continued the practice of sending annual tribute to Tyre's temple of Melqart, albeit at irregular intervals.

By the sixth century BCE, Tyre's power declined further still after its voluntary submission to the Persian king Cambyses ( r . 530–522 BCE), which resulted in the incorporation of the Phoenician homeland into the Persian empire. Lacking sufficient naval strength, Cambyses sought Tyrian assistance for his planned conquest of Carthage, which may indicate that the former Tyrian colony had become wealthy enough to warrant a long and difficult expedition. Herodotus claims that the Tyrians refused to cooperate due to their affinity for Carthage, causing the Persian king to abort his campaign. Though it escaped reprisal, Tyre's status as Phoenicia's leading city was significantly circumscribed; its rival, Sidon, subsequently garnered more support from the Persians. However, it too remained subjugated, leading the way for Carthage to fill the vacuum as the leading Phoenician political power.

By 550 BCE, Carthage controlled all coast of OTL Tunisia, Algeria and some parts of Morocco. The Phoenicians also established colonies on the southern coast of Iberia, founding several cities there.

Conflicts with the Greeks (480–281 BCE)
In 480 BCE, following Hamilcar I's death, the king lost most of his power to an aristocratic Council of Elders.

In the 340's BCE, Italy was divided between three main forces. The Gauls in the North, the Rasennans in the center, and the Greeks in the south. The Rasennans, for a long time, had an alliance with Carthage to work together against the Greeks. With Carthage's maritime power and Rasenna's field army, they were a huge problem for the Greeks. Still, the Greek cities of Neapolis and Syracuse continued to prosper.

In 336 BCE, a Greek scout reported the movement of Carthage's army stationed in Sicily. The army was moving quickly to the east, towards Italy. Syracuse sent its army to meet the Carthaginians. However, it was too late for Syracuse to withdraw its army when they heard of the sacking of Neapolis, a fellow Greek colony. The Rasennans to the north were responsible, and they were on the move. When the army of Syracuse finally met the Carthaginians near the city of Messene, the army of Carthage stalled. They dug in at a local village nestled in the hills. The Greeks were confused, and demanded that the Carthaginians either fought, or left. The Phoenician army did neither.

It was the sixth night of Gemini (ca. 26th May 336 BCE) when the Pheonician army finally moved. The Carthaginian general, *Gisco, split his force in half, and sent one half, under the leadership of his son, in the dead of night to the beach. They were to move without the light of fire to guide them, and any man who spoke would have his tongue cut out.

When the Greek army rose the next morning, they saw Carthaginian ships on the beach, and a Rasennan army pouring out, with a Phoenician army meeting them. The following battle is considered the turning point in Greek control of Sicily. The Greeks, now fighting an enemy twice the size as the one they met prior, were utterly crushed. In the heat of the battle, *Gisco's forces flanked the Greek phalanx, and broke it apart. The Greeks were routed, and pushed back to Syracuse.

The Greeks sued for peace, and a treaty was signed between Syracuse, Carthage, and Rasenna by the end of the year. Greek hegemony over the island was reduced to the city of Syracuse, and a few surrounding towns. The rest of the island was now Carthaginian.

In 335 BCE, the Samnites were invaded by Rasenna, with Carthaginian forces attacking from the Adriatic. The two forces caught the Samnites in a vise grip, and soon they were obliterated. The Samnites, except some guerillas in the hills, were completely subdued by the Rasennans in 332 BCE, after the Samnite War (335-332 BCE). The Samnites would remain a rebellious sect in Italy, refusing to be ruled by those men who "spoke like dogs." The phrase in Greece caught on, and the term "to speak like a Rasennan" became an insult, denoting a lack of education, or being too stupid to speak.

Meanwhile, Rasennan soldiers were spread thin, and in 321 BCE, the Cisalpine Celts struck again. The combined force of Boi, Salassi, Senones, and Celticized Ligurians, along with other tribes rushed through, terrorizing the Rasennan cities in Central Italy. At first, the Rasennans met the Celts in battle. However, at the battle of Aritim, the Rasennans suffered a crushing defeat, and were routed. The God-King *Pesna I called on his old friend and ally, Carthage, for help and asked for protection.

During all this time, the Republic of Carthage had not been stagnant. The Carthaginians had begun to colonize southern Iberia, and coastal Libya. They had opened trade with the Lusitanians and the Celtic Iberians. Carthage was in sight of a golden age. So, the Senate in Carthage sent an army, and they sent a plan with them.

The Carthaginian fleet sailed across the Tyrrhenian Sea, and made port in Fufluna. There, they were received graciously, though the Phoenician general *Himilco had a mission. He explained to the God-King *Pesna I what this army from Carthage would cost him, but *Pesna I didn’t listen. He was eager for war. In 319 BCE, the Carthaginian force, combined with the Rasennans, met the Celts outside a small town near Mantua, which had become a base of operations for the invaders. The Gallic leader, whose name was never recorded by the Rasennans, rode into battle with his chariots, their Celtic chain mail flashing in the sunlight. The Celtic war-horns howled demonically, and their deep, low drums "made the earth shake with each blow." However, the Phoenician army completely crushed them.

One of the Gallic tribes, the Boii, retreated over the Alps to Pannonia, where they then resettled. The Celts that remained were taken prisoner. Among the captured was the Gallic leader of the Senones. Many of the men were sold into slavery. The tribal chieftains were put to death. The captured Gallic leader was forced to swear fealty to the Rasennan God-King before he was crucified outside Veia. The Rasennans retook all of their former land, and even gained territory formerly held by the Veneti, who were also scourged by the Second Gallic Invasion of Italy.

The Rasennans wanted to continue the war and invade further north, but the Carthaginians refused. The God-King, outraged, demanded why. So the legend goes, general *Himilco calmly walked to the Rasennan king, handed him a scroll, and said, "This is the price of your victory."

Rasenna had asked for Carthaginian protection, the cost of which was severe. The Rasennans owed Carthage mass amounts of gold and riches, which Rasenna could not pay. If the weak Kingdom of Rasenna was to survive, it needed to have Carthage’s protection. The only way to do this,*Pesna I knew, was to vow loyalty to Carthage. The "divine" Rasennan government essentially became a puppet to Carthage. It was independent, but certainly not free. This political move would set the precedent for Carthaginian foreign affairs for centuries to come. Now, Rasenna is a satellite state of Carthage, far from powerful.

In 309 BCE, king Bomilcar I of Carthage, who wanted to overthrow the government and restore the monarchy to full power, hired an army with mercenaries from across the realm of Carthage beyond. He hired Iberian horsemen, Nubian light cavalry, Libyan light infantry, and 30 elephants. His army of 40,000 was bolstered by the support of the people when he offered to extend citizenship to all free men in the realm who pledged allegiance to him. The Rasennans backed him with what they could spare. After all, their ideology favored monarchy, and their contract was to pledge allegiance to the Crown and the Senate. When it came down to the choice, they chose the Crown. Bomilcar promised land to his generals, and reform to the corrupt Senate if it were to survive at all. Indeed, the Senate did not like this last part. Bomilcar I succeeded, and reestablished the monarchy to full power.

Pyrrhic Wars (281-275 BCE)
The Greek colony of Taras, built by the Spartans, was the most powerful city in all of Italy and provoked the Rasennans, a satellite state of Carthage, by attacking their ships and humiliating their envoys. Now worried about Rasenna and Carthage, the Tarentines, who governed democratically at this point, voted to send an embassy to Epirus, asking for assistance in 281 BCE. Pyrrhus, the king of Epirus, agreed, but demanded that Taras must pay the costs of the war and give him supreme command of the allied forces. To further pressure his western rival into the going to Italy, so that he could concentrate on the east, Ptolemy Ceraunus "the Thunderbolt" of Macedon offered Pyrrhus 5,000 more Phalangites for the campaign.

In early 280 BCE, Taras sent its fleet to transport Pyrrhus' army to Italy. The force which embarked in Epirus, consisted of 20,000 men, mostly Macedonian and Epirote Sarissa pikemen and possibly some mercenaries, 3,000 cavarly, 2,000 archers, 500 slingers and 20 war elephants. After landing, the King began to militarise Taras and deal with any political enemies there.

Battle of Heraclea (280 BCE)
The Rasennans, with Carthaginian support, wanted to force Pyrrhus into battle, before his Greek allies arrived, and raided the enemy countryside of southern Italy, while pushing south. In mid-280 BCE, their plan succeeded and, learning that the Rasennans were bearing down on the Greek city of Heraclea, Pyrrhus marched to meet his new foe for the first time. The Rasennan army was comprised of 20,000 Rasennan soldiers and 20,000 Carthaginian mercenaries, of which were 15 war elephants. Pyrrhus' army now numbered around 31,000 men, 4,000 of which are elite cavalry from Thessaly. In reserve were his 20 war elephants.

Pyrrhus wished to delay any battle for as long as possible until his allies could rally their forces and join him. Shadowing the larger Rasennan force, he encamped on a plain outside the city, near the left bank of the Siris River, hoping to protect the settlement on the terrain suitable for his phalanx, while the Rasennans encamped on the other side of the river. When his army was resting, Pyrrhus and his friend Megacles went scouting to examine the enemy camp. In order to guard the riverbank, a contigent of light infantry missile troops was sent towards it. This done, Pyrrhus turned to other concerns, thinking he had plenty of time in his strong defensive position. He was about to recieve a nasty shock.

After a few hours of preperation, the Carthaginian officer, ordered his entire army of over 40,000 soldiers to cross the river. The small force of light infantry skirmishes that Pyrrhus had placed on the riverbank pelted the Rasennans with missiles and slowed them down a little, but the noise of an entire army crossing the river deafened them and they were unable to hear what was coming. To their left, the Rasennan cavalry, which had crossed the river further upstream, smashed into the flank of the defending missile units, who quickly retreated after suffering huge losses. The enemy was now coming across, and Pyrrhus, who could not afford losing his river defense entirely before his infantry was readym, organized his phalanx, before charging ahead of them with 3,000 of his best cavalry and straight into the Rasennan infantry. This slowed them down and gave the Phalangites a chance to catch up.

As they approached the battle line, the Carthaginian war elephants crossed the river. In this melee, Pyrrhus was knocked of his horse and almost killed by an enemy rider, which prompted him to pull back. His friend Megacles, swapped his armour and rode back to the frontline. However, the Rasennans were slowly pushed back into the river. His friend Megacles was killed in battle and now the Epirotes thought that Pyrrhus was dead. The morale dropped heavily, while Pyrrhus rode around his army and informed them, that he was still alive. Later, Pyrrhus unleashed his war elephants and the Rasennans retreated.

After a long and bloody battle, Pyrrhus came out victorious and the Rasennans retreated. Pyrrhus lost 4,000 men, including many of his senior veteran officers, while his enemy lost 6,500 men and 1,500 more soldiers were captured. Though Pyrrhus had won his first major battle against Rasenna, it had been a difficult match. He would soon learn, that despite his own martial skills, he had truly met his match. Carthage, dismissing Pyrrhus' offers of surrender terms, began recruiting a new army and the Epirote king began to patch up his own, ready for the next battle, which was soon to come.

Meanwhile, the Rasennan army returned to Veia and was resupplied with Carthaginian mercenaries and Rasennan soldiers. However, this had proven to be a mistake as Pyrrhus was now marching out to besiege Neapolis. The Rasennans were too slow and Neapolis fell without much resistance. Suprised by this, the Rasennan army was again defeated near Neapolis and retreated, while Pyrrhus marched back to Taras.

Pyrrhus' invasion of Sicily (279-276 BCE)
While Pyrrhus rested in Taras, two embassies arrived, each one with a unique opportunity for the Epirote king. One was from Macedon, back across the Adriatic, where in 279 BCE, Ptolemy Ceraunus "the Thunderbolt", marched out to meet a Gallic invasion and had been killed after falling from his horse. Macedon was in trouble and needed a king who was a proven warrior. The second envoy was from the Greek cities of Sicily, which were beset by enemies including the Mamertine mercenaries and more importantly, the extremly wealthy Carthaginian Empire. Likely tempted by ambitions of invading Sicily as a springboard to conquer Carthage, Pyrrhus opted for Sicilian option, horrifying his Tarentine allies. Rasenna used this to quickly recapture Neapolis and more land east of it.

In 278 BCE, soon after disembarking his army in Sicily, he lifted the Carthaginian Siege of Syracuse. Pyrrhus was proclaimed king of Sicily. He was already making plans for his son Helenus, a grandson of Agathocles of Syracuse through his mother, to inherit the kingdom of Sicily and his other son Alexander to be given Italy. In 277 BCE, Pyrrhus captured Eryx, the strongest Carthaginian fortress in Sicily. This prompted the rest of the Carthaginian-controlled cities to defect to Pyrrhus.

In 276 BCE, Pyrrhus negotiated with the Carthaginians. Although they were inclined to come to terms with Pyrrhus, supply him money and send him ships once friendly relations were established, he demanded that Carthage abandon all of Sicily and make the Libyan Sea a boundary between themselves and the Greeks. The Greek cities of Sicily opposed making peace with Carthage because the Carthaginians still controlled the powerful fortress of Lilybaeum, on the western end of the island. Pyrrhus eventually gave in to their proposals and broke off the peace negotiations. Pyrrhus' army then began besieging Lilybaeum. For two months he launched unsuccessful assaults on the city, until finally he realized he could not mount an effective siege without blockading it from the sea as well. Pyrrhus then requested manpower and money from the Sicilians in order to construct a powerful fleet. When the Sicilians became unhappy about these contributions he had to resort to compulsory contributions and force to keep them in line. These measures culminated in him proclaiming a military dictatorship of Sicily and installing military garrisons in Sicilian cities.

These actions were deeply unpopular and soon Sicilian opinion became inflamed against him. Pyrrhus had so alienated the Sicilian Greeks that they were willing to make common cause with the Carthaginians. The Carthaginians took heart from this and sent another army against him. This army was promptly defeated. In spite of this victory, Sicily continued to grow increasingly hostile to Pyrrhus, who began to consider abandoning Sicily.

While Pyrrhus had been campaigning against the Carthaginians in Sicily, their subject, the Rasennans had rebuilt their army by calling up thousands of fresh recruits. When Pyrrhus returned from Sicily, he found himself vastly outnumbered against a superior Rasennan army. After the inconclusive Battle of Maloenton (OTL Beneventum) in 275 BCE, Pyrrhus decided to end his campaign in Italy and return to Epirus which resulted in the loss of essentially all the gains he had made in Italy. Still, the city of Taras remained under the dominion of the Epirotes.

In 272 BCE, upon hearing the news of Pyrrhus's death, the Tarentinians surrendered to Carthage. However, Syracuse remained steadfast and continued the war with Carthage, during the Syracusan War (272-271 BCE). However, in 271 BCE, the Syracusan resistance was crushed and the Carthaginians stormed the city of Syracuse, thus annexing all of Sicily.

First Iberian War (236-218 BCE)
In 236 BCE, the member of the noble Barcid family, Hamilcar Barca set out to improve his family's fortunes. With that in mind and supported by the city of Gades, Hamilcar began the subjugation of the tribes of the Iberian Peninsula.

Hannibal's father went about the conquest of Hispania. When his father drowned in battle, Hannibal's brother-in-law Hasdrubal the Fair, succeeded to his command of the army with Hannibal (then 18 years old) serving as an officer under him.

After he assumed command, Hannibal spent two years consolidating his holdings and completing the conquest of Hispania, south of the Ebro. In his first campaign, Hannibal attacked and stormed the Olcades' strongest centre, Alithia, which promptly led to their surrender, and brought Phoenician power close to the River Tagus. His following campaign in 220 BCE was against the Vaccaei to the west, where he stormed the Vaccaen strongholds of Helmantice and Arbucala. On his return home, laden with many spoils, a coalition of Spanish tribes, led by the Carpetani, attacked, and Hannibal won his first major battlefield success and showed off his tactical skills at the battle of the River Tagus. He then laid siege to the city of Saguntum, which fell after eight months.

Numidian War and Saviour of Carthage (218-215 BCE)
Right after Hannibal arrived at Carthago in 218 BCE, one of the Numidian kings, Masinissa demanded huge payment from Carthage for the effective service from Numidian soldiers during the First Iberian War, which Carthage mostly refused. Masinissa managed to raise an army of 30,000 and began his revolt. The opposing Numidians tried to convince the other kingdoms to fight Carthage, which, however, only partly worked. In result, Masinissa burned Phoenician farmlands and demanded more payment. Enraged, the Carthaginian king declared war on Masinissa. The Numidian king, Syphax who sympathized with Carthage, asked for support.

Hannibal was sent to deal with the revolt, and annihilated a Libyan army at the Battle of Leptis (217 BCE). Another general, named *Bostar, was sent to deal with Masinissa as well. However, even though he outnumbered the Numidians, *Bostar was crushed at the First Battle of Cirta (217 BCE), as Masinissa took advantage of the flat terrain and the fact that the Numidians made up the main Carthaginian cavalry. Masinissa's plan was to occupy Hannibal for long as possible until only his army would remain. Hannibal was shocked when he heard of Masinissa marching north to Zama and he hastily followed. However, he was too late and *Bostar was once again defeated and killed at the Battle of Zama in 217 BCE, as many Numdians in the Phoenician army deserted, attacking the army from inside.

After news of low stability reached Italy and Iberia, dozens of revolts and uprisings broke out in these regions, namely the Samnite Uprising (216-215 BCE), the Umbrian Uprising (216-214 BCE) and the Vettone Uprising (216-214 BCE). Hannibal pursued Masinissa and annihilated his army on its way directly to Carthago. Masinissa was then again defeated at the Second Battle of Cirta in 216 BCE. His army was crushed, and Masinissa was executed shortly after. A Numidian vassal kingdom was then established with Syphax as client king. Hannibal then quickly sailed to Italy and defeated the Samnites and Umbrians. To stabilize the region, a Samnite and Umbrian client state was established. Lastly, he sailed to Iberia and silenced all revolts. Thus, Hannibal became the most beloved person in all of Carthaginian history and was granted the nickname "Savior of Carthage".

Second Iberian War (212-202 BCE)
In 212 BCE, after receiving news that the northern coast of Iberia was especially rich in resources, Hannibal was sent for an expedition to conquer these tribes and to get his family a higher esteem. First, Hannibal subdued and conquered the mighty Lusitanians, thanks to his war elephants. Then, the Carthaginians defeated the powerful Gallaeci and conquered them as well. Afterwards, he did the same with the Astures and Cantabri. Finally, Hannibal conquered the Celtiberians, securing all Iberian land, west of the Ebro River. These conquests, known as the Iberian Wars (236-218 BCE; 212-202 BCE) greatly increased the power and wealth of Carthage. Hannibal would later be regarded as one of the greatest generals in all of history.

After Hannibals conquests, Carthaginians founded the city of Olissipo (OTL Lissabon) on the Iberian west coast. Later, they also founded the cities of [...] (OTL Porto), [...] (OTL A Coruña), Noega (OTL Gijón) and [...] (OTL Santander).

Carthago-Macedonian War (188-187 BCE)
In 188 BCE, Philip V of Macedon waged a war against the Carthaginian Empire, aiming to conquer south-east Italy, excluding Sicily. Also known as the Carthago-Macedonian War (188-187 BCE). At first, Philip V suffered a defeat at the Battle of Taras (183 BCE). However, soon after, massive allied Seleucid and Macedonian reinforcements arrived in Italy. It was only thanks to Hannibals great strategy that defeated the Macedonians at the Battle of Heraclea in 187 BCE. Soon after, a truce was signed and the Macedonians and Seleucids had to promise, never to expand west of Greece anymore, which remained for the next centuries to come. This treaty ultimately increased Carthaginian hegemony in the Mediterranean Sea, especially in the west.

Iberian uprisings and Viriathus (181-139 BCE)
In April 181 BCE, resisting Celtiberians attacked the southern Carthaginian colonies. Their reason was overpopulation. This sparked the Celtiberian War (181-179 BCE). However, the Celtiberians lost the war and were subdued once again. This would be the last war for Hannibal, who died in 172 BCE at the age of 75.

Following Hannibals death, the situation in Iberia and Rasenna became more and more unstable. The "Carthaginization" of Iberia, following Phoenician settlers and the integration of their language came to the cost of unrest and instability, especially in Lusitania.

In 154 BCE, the Lusitanian chieftain Punicus secretly assassinated a high ranked Carthaginian officer stationated near the Lusitanian capital, Oxthracae, leaving the remaining garrisons now completely unorganized because of a missing high-tier command. Using this to their advantage, Punicus liberated most of the former Lusitanian land, killing most of the garrisons located in Lusitania, which numbered around 10,000. 5,000 of which, became prisoners of war. Punicus forced them to desert, otherwise the Carthaginians would get executed. The 4,000 mercenaries accepted, while the 1,000 Phoenicians remained loyal and were executed thereafter. After this first victory, the Lusitanians gained the alliance of the Vettones and together layed siege to Olissipo, a Phoenician city.

The Lusitanians on the other side of the Tagus River were led by the chief Caucenus and pushed south, gaining the alliance of the Phoenician-controlled Celtici and capturing Conistorgis. Some of the Lusitanians proceeded to raid North Africa, laying siege to a city named Ocile. However, the Carthaginians achieved victory against the Lusitanian rebels and ended the Siege of Ocile.

The Carthaginian reinforcements, which continued fighting the Lusitanians, reconquered the Celtici, killed another 700 Lusitanians and took their largest city, Oxthracae. This terrified the neighboring tribes (including the Vettones), which made terms of surrender in 152 BCE.

During the winter of 152 BCE, the Lusitanians rebelled again, besieging some Carthaginian stellements. The Carthaginian army rushed to rescue them. After an initial victory, Carthage was defeated while trying to pursue the fleeing Lusitanian forces. About 7,000 Carthaginians were killed and the army took refuge in a settlement called Carmone. The Carthaginians reassembled their forces and wintered in Gadir. Another Phoenician army was wintering in Turdetania. When they discovered that Lusitanians were nearby, they started by attacking them (killing 4,000), then those crossing the straits near Gadir (killing another 1500 of them) and then setting off to invade Lusitania in 150 BCE, recapturing most of the territory.

In 148 BCE, the Lusitanians assembled a force of 10,000 and attacked Turdetania. Meanwhile, the Carthaginians were amassing a force double the size of their opponent. The Carthaginians won against the Lusitanians, who asked for peace terms. Meanwhile, Viriathus holds a speech and convinces his fellow Lusitanians that they should not let themselves be subdued anymore. The Lusitanians choose Viriathus as their leader and obey his escape plan: they should organize as if going into battle, but then flee in every direction and later reassemble in a city named Tribola. The Carthaginians, seeing the Lusitanian forces scattering, decided to attack Viriathus head on, but Viriathus (and 1000 of his best men) proceeded to flee and attacked repeatedly, occupying the Carthaginians for enough time (two days) for the others to flee to safety and then flees himself to join them. With this feat, Viriathus gains great fame and reinforcements from neighboring tribes.

Viriathus was to gain renown throughout the ancient world as a guerrilla fighter. In 148 BCE, The Carthaginians followed Viriathus into Tribola. Viriathus' forces ambushed the Phoenicians. About 16,000 Carthaginians managed to flee to Carpessus, the remaining of the original 20,000 being either killed or imprisoned. The Phoenician officer himself is captured in this ambush, as well as a couple of mighty war elephants. The Carthaginians asked for reinforcements and about 10,000 men arrived. However, 5,000 of them are slayed in skirmishes against Viriathus' forces.

In 146 BCE, Viriathus raids Carpetania, slaying another 5,000 Phoenicians.

In 145 BCE, the Carthaginians were tired of defeats and assembled a force of 18,000 men on foot, 2,000 on horse and a few war elephants. The forces assembled in Urso and skirmished with the Lusitanians frequently, but without full-scale battle.

In 144 BCE, the Pheonicians attacked Viriathus and managed to put him into flight, capturing two of his cities. They pursued Viriathus into a place called Baecor, killing many of his men and failing to capture Viriathus. The Carthaginians wintered in Corduba.

In 143 BCE, Viriathus managed to persuade several Celtic tribes (Celtici, Arevaci, Titii, Belli and even the Astures, Gallaeci and Cantabri) to resist the Carthaginians, leading to the Third Iberian War. Afterwards, Viriathus skirmishes with the Carthaginians, takes refuge in a place called Venus mountain, but later returns to battle, slaying 1000 Phoenicians. He then drove out many Phoenician garrisons and raided south-eastern Iberia. The Carthaginian army wintered at Corduba in the middle of Autumn.

In 142 BCE, up to a total of 18,000 men on foot, 2,000 on horse and some war elephants were sent to deal with Viriathus, once for all. They got attacked by Viriathus, who does not succeeded in disrupting the Carthaginian plans. The Carthaginians were reinforced by 500 horsed and ten more elephants. The Phoenicians won over Viriathus, who fled but manages to inflict 3,000 deaths and to drive them back to camp. The Carthaginians are saved by night time and manage to defend their camp initially, but after constant attacks from Viriathus during the night or during the heat of day, fall back to Itucca. Viriathus returns to Lusitania and the Phoenicians, instead of following him, raided a couple of towns in Turdetania, who had sided with the Lusitanians. Afterwards, they marched against the Celtici and only then into Lusitania.

While moving against Viriathus, the Phoenicians were attacked by Curius and Apuleius, who led 10,000 men. Curius is killed in battle and the Carthaginians succeeded in capturing the Lusitanian cities of Escadia, Gemella, and Obolcola. While following Viriathus, the Carthaginian army rested in Erisana. However, Viriathus managed to infiltrate the town and defeated the Phoenician armies.

Battle of Tucci (141 BCE)
The Carthaginians and the Lusitanians were exhausted, though both were not willing to give up yet. Meanwhile, Viriathus prepared for a decisive battle near Tucci to finally turn the tide of the war. While the Carthaginians rested in Tucci, Viriathus planned to outflank them from every side, using guerilla tactics: First encircling the city then capturing it and defeating the 15.000 Carthaginians with around 10.000 Lusitanians. However, he had to be fast as there were news about a 10,000 strong army on its way to reinforce the Phoenicians.

In 141 BCE, Viriathus attacked from all sides. First, he surrounded the city and pushed the Carthaginians into the city walls. Though, some of these managed to hold their position on the nearby mountain, which was easily defendable. Virathus captured the mountain, killing 1.000 Phoencians, though loosing 500 men himself. Now, Virathus could observe the exact location of the enemy soldiers. Using this to their advantage, the Lusitanians infiltrated the city multiple times using hit and run tactics, which was highly effective, killing around 1.500 soldiers. Most of these attacks were short-lived however, as there were multiple war elephants stationated in the city, which made further attacking suicidal. The Phoencians tried a few sorties, though most of which were ineffective.

Viriathus knew, he had to defeat the Carthaginians quickly before the reinforcements arrive, and he had a plan. He sent messages to the Lusitanian tribes, asking if they could send the captured Carthaginian war elephants to Tucci. Around a week later the elephants arrived, though later than assumed. His plan was to sabotage and destroy the city walls, leaving the Phoenicians completely encircled. Then he should attack the exposed Carthaginians using the war elephants and guerilla tactics. Viriathus began to destory the city walls, which turned out to be effective. After most of the wall was destroyed and the Carthaginians confused and anxious, Virathus launched an all out attack. Both sides inflicted huge casualties from the war elephants and the battle was a brutal bloodshed. However, the Lusitanians seemed to have gained the upper hand and the Phoenicians were on low moral, slaying almost 11,000 Carthaginians.

However, during the heat of the battle, the Carthaginian reinforcements finally arrived and decisively flanked the Lusitanians from behind, after capturing the mountain. The Lusitanians were completely annihilated from behind and the wounded Viriathus as well as a few hundred men barely managed to escape and retreated, completely traumatized. The rest was either captured or killed. In the capital, Oxthracae, the remaining Lusitanians finally wanted an end to the war and Virathus accepted, more or less. Meanwhile, the surviving Carthaginian officer begged the king to end the war with the Lusitanians.

In 140 BCE, a peace treaty was arranged. The Carthaginians would establish a client kingdom, with some degree of autonomy, for most of their tribal Iberian holdings, establishing Viriathus as the vassal king of Lusitania. In return, the Lusitanians and all other Iberian tribes involved, would swear loyalty to Carthage. Both sides were shattered and Viriathus knew he couldn't continue this war for much longer and accepted the treaty. However, a few tribes, like the Gallaeci, Astures and Cantabri, continued fighting for another year. This marked the end of the Lusitanian- (154-140 BCE) and Third Iberian War (143-139 BCE).

Jugurthine War (111-110 BCE)
King Masinissa of the Numidian client state, who was a steadfast ally of Carthage, died in 149 BCE, and was succeeded by his son Micipsa, who ruled 149-118 BCE. At the time of his death, Micipsa had three potential heirs, his two sons, Adherbal and Hiempsal I, and an illegitimate nephew, Jugurtha. Micipsa, worried that at his death, Jugurtha would usurp the kingdom from his own somewhat less able sons, adopted him, and bequeathed the kingship jointly to his two sons and Jugurtha.

After King Micipsa's death the three kings fell out, and ultimately agreed between themselves to divide their inheritance into three separate vassal kingdoms; however, they were unable to agree on the terms of division, and Jugurtha declared open war on his cousins; Hiempsal, who, though the younger, was the braver of the brothers, was assassinated by Jugurtha's agents, and Adherbal, unable to defend himself, was defeated and forced to flee to Carthago, where he appealed for arbitration to the Phoenician king.

Although the king was a security for Micipsa's will, he organized a commission to fairly divide Numidia between the remaining contestants (116 BCE). However, Jugurtha bribed the Carthaginian officials in the commission into allotting him the better, more fertile and populous western half of Numidia, while Adherbal received the east. Powerless against this corruption, Adherbal accepted and peace was made. Shortly after, in 113 BCE, Jugurtha again declared war on his brother, and defeated him, forcing him to retreat into Cirta, Adherbal's capital. Adherbal held out for some months, aided by a large number of Carthaginian garrisons, who had been stationated in Numidia to stabilze the conflict. From inside his siege lines, Adherbal appealed again to Carthage, and the king dispatched a message to Jugurtha to desist. The latter ignored the demand, and the king sent a second commission, this time headed by a respected Phoenician general, to threaten the Numidian king into submission.

The king, pretending to be open to discussion, protracted negotiations with the general, long enough for Cirta to run out of provisions and hope of relief. When the general left without having forced Jugurtha to a commitment, Adherbal surrendered. Jugurtha promptly had him executed, along with the Carthaginians who had joined in the defence of Cirta. However, the deaths of Phoenician citizens caused an immediate furor among the commoners at home, and the king finally declared war on Jugurtha in 111 BCE.

That same year, 40,000 soldiers were sent to deal with Jugurtha. He bribed many garrisons and smaller armies, gaining up to 10,000 more men. However, these 40,000 troops, clashed with the Numidians at the Battle of Cirta in 111 BCE, inflicting a heavy defeat. In 110 BCE, the remains Jugurtha's army were defeated and crushed. At this point, Jugurtha retired to the court of his father-in-law, king Bocchus I of Mauretania (founded around 225 BCE), who though previously professing friendship for the Carthaginians, now received Jugurtha hospitably. The Carthaginians, who had taken up winter quarters in the area after the conclusion of the campaign, began negotiation with Bocchus to hand over Jugurtha. Realizing he can't continue the war for much longer, accepted and handed Jugurtha over in 110 BCE. Jurgurtha was sent into exile, ending the Jugurthan War (111-110 BCE).

Contact with the Cimbri (109-98 BCE)
In 109 BCE, the Cimbri, a Germanic people from the Jutland peninsula had turned to the Kingdom of Massalia, together with their allies, the Teutons and Tigurini, where they overran the Greek cities, with a massive army of over 250.000 men. In 108 BCE, the city of Massalia was stormed by the Cimbri. Thousands of civilians fled to the Greek colonies of Eastern Iberia, namely Emporion, establishing a united kingdom, called "New Greece" (Neos Ellas). Meanwhile, the Cimbrian Kingdom was established, centered around the city of Massalia and the Rhone Valley. The Cimbri adopted much of Greek culture, especially Greek army tactics and equipment. Their allies, the Teutons, established a kingdom to their west, centered around the city of Agathe. In the center of both, was the Kingdom of their Celtic allies, the Tigurini, centered around Nemausus. However, to avoid a war with the Carthaginian Empire, the city of Arelate remained under their control, and thus, trading with the Phoenicians increased.

Early African explorations (60-44 BCE)
The Carthaginian Empire, now ruled the entire western Mediterranean for almost 300 years. After founding several cities in OTL northern Morocco by 60 BCE (Soloeis and Karikon Teichos), Carthage showed more and more interested in exploring "mythical" and unknown lands. In 50 BCE, the Carthaginians started a new exploration into Africa, after Hanno the Explorer did so centuries ago.

Cretan War (55-54 BCE)
After the death of Mithridates VI of Pontos, in 55 BCE, the Empire experienced a short period of instability, which was intensified by a Dacian invasion from (55-54 BCE). The Carthaginians used this instabilty to their advantage and had invaded Crete, during the Cretan War (55-54 BCE). However, Pontos was heavily defeated and was forced to sign an armstice, leaving Crete under Phoenician control. This was only the first step for a future invasion of Phoenicia itself.

First Egyptian War (52-50 BCE)
In 52 BCE, the Carthaginians had invaded the Demetrian controlled island of Cyprus. First, landing near the city of Soloi, the Phoenicians had quickly overrun the entire island. The Egyptians were completely taken by suprise and the Demetrian king, *Demetrius V was outraged. When the Carthaginians landed near the city of Sidun, the Egyptian army was marching to Tyre, leaving a garrison at Jerusalem. However, due to huge Phoenician naval support, the Egyptians were completely defeated at the battle of Tyre (52 BCE) and were forced to retreat to Jerusalem, to link up with the rest of their army. When the Carthaginians were at the gates of Jerusalem, the Egyptians were suprise attacked and sabotaged by a Jewish rebellion, leaving the Demetrians completely unorganized. As the Carthaginians entered the city, many Jews were welcoming them as brothers, and together they massacred the Demetrians from all sides, who suffered around 23,000 casualties and lost their general.

When in 51 BCE, *Demetrius V, died from a heart attack, his more ambitous son, *Demetrius VI ascended the throne. Meanwhile, the Carthaginians were sailing towards Egypt, capturing the city of Gaza on their way. *Demetrius VI was anticipating that the Carthaginians would sail into the Nile or directly to Alexandria. Most of the Egyptian fleet was sent to guard every entrance of the Nile and Alexandria. When the Demetrians met the Phoenicians at the mouth of the Rosetta Nile branch, they attacked the Carthaginian ships, specifically those loaded with siege engines and support equipment, implying an attack on the city of Sais. As the infantry noticed the missing ships, the Phoenicians ignored this loss, and, likely light-headed by their high morale, the Carthaginians continued sailing down, not knowing they just lost one the most important things for the siege, the siege engines.

* Demetrius VI caught the Carthaginians in a profitable situation and ordered his fleet to chase the Phoenicians, while preparing the city garrisons for an invasion of Sais. As the Carthaginians tried to disembark near the city, they noticed the missing siege engines, and simultaneously, the Demetrians attacked them, from both the ships behind them, and the garrisons from the other side. The Phoenicians were completely annihilated and destroyed from every side, loosing their entire army of 40,000 soldiers. The Carthaginian general, *Carthalo, was taken a prisoner.

Stationated in Phoenicia, the Carthaginian king [...], was completely shocked and ordered 50,000 reinforcements, which arrived at Sidun in 50 BCE. In the meantime, *Demetrius VI, captured the cities of Gaza and Jerusalem (50 BCE) with an army of 40,000 men, while the Phoenicians were preparing for a battle in the city of Akko.

As the Demetrians met the Carthaginians near Akko, the former was building up their formation. However, the Phoenicians had a decisive advantage: Their famous Numidian cavalry. *Demetrius VI was stationated at the head of the army. However, as the Carthaginians charged, together, with the Numidian cavalry, both launched a hail of arrows at their enemy, targeted to hit *Demetrius. As the now wounded elite bodyguards tried to protect the king, one lucky arrow shot the king directly in his right eye, who was then knocked from his horse. As the now unconscious king was the only leading force in the army, the morale of the Egyptians gradually sunk. As the Demetrians were engaged with securing the king to a safe place, the cavalry slaughtered the Egyptians, who were, at the same time, desperatly trying to pull the king away, in a great bloodshed. The Numidian cavalry now had enough time to encircle the entire army, and with support from the rest of army, including war elephants, the Demetrians were completely crushed, and lost 20,000 men, while the rest managed to retreat. The Phoenicians believed, this arrow was a message from their god, Baal.

As the Carthaginians clashed with the Demetrians in Jerusalem, the latter was again, completely annihilated, with once again, support from the Jews. However, this time, the entire army of 20,000 men was killed. When the king woke up during the end of the battle, *Demetrius VI, being the only survivor, got on his horse and rode during the heat of the days and the cold, dead nights alone towards Gaza, with a shortage of food and water. When the king, completely traumatized, was recieved at the city, he immediately asked the Carthaginians, desperately for peace.

A peace treaty was signed in 50 BCE, between the two powers. Carthage would assert control over Cyprus and the Phoenician coastal cities, from Oyat to Akko, while the Demetrian Kingdom of Egypt, would retain control over the remains of their holdings. Specifically, the Phoenician coast would experience a reintegration of Phoenician language and culture. The island city of Sur, which was turned into a peninsula by Alexander the Great, was again disconnected from the mainland, and instead a bridge was built. This would make the city much more easily defendable and in a case of war the bridge could be destroyed. Phoenicia itself would be attractive for colonization and pilgrims, and would be seen as their "Holy Land".

The Volcanic Eruption of 44 BCE and aftermath (44-40 BCE)
However, these explorations were shortly interrupted, as in 44 BCE, written sources describe a period of unusually cold climate, crop failures, famine, disease, and unrest in the Mediterranean Region. These factors caused food scarcity in Carthage, which halted further explorations for a time. The reason for this is a volcanic eruption in Okmok, Alaska.

Climate models suggest that seasonally averaged temperatures may have been as much as 7°C (13°F) below normal during the summer and autumn that followed the eruption of Okmok in 44 BCE.

The cooling effects lasted more than two years, resulting in the second and eighth coldest summertime temperatures of the past 2,500 years in 43 and 42 BCE, respectively, based on the European tree-ring climate proxy records. This short "dark age" lasted until around the collapse of the Demetrian Kingdom in 38 BCE.

However, what followed the next centuries, is a Carthaginian golden age, marked by peace, prosperity, exploration, consolidation of power and extreme wealth.

First Levantine- and Cyrenaican War (40-38 BCE)
In 40 BCE, the Parthian prince Pacorus I subdued all Egyptian settlements along the Levantine coast as far south as the city of Shechem, initiating the Second Egyptian War (40-38 BCE). In reaction to this, *Demetrius VI sent an army to meet the Parthians at Jerusalem. However, the Carthaginians, took this oppurtunity and invaded Syria as far as Damascus. After Pacorus I, defeated the Demetrians at Jerusalem, he immediately sent his army to Damascus, only to be defeated by the Phoenicians. Pacorus, was forced to sign an armstice, and thus, the Carthaginian territory in Phoenicia now reached from the cities of Arwad, to Damascus and all the way south to Dor, marking the end of the Second Levantine War (40-39 BCE).

The Egyptians, however, are in decline and had just experienced a great flood and a famine, causing shortages of soldiers and supplies. Pacorus I, decisively outflanked the low-moraled Demetrians with their Parthian cavalry at the Battle of Gaza in 39 BCE, killing their entire army of 20,000 men, including the Egyptian general. The Parthians, now with reinforcements from their king Orodes II, swept into Egypt and quickly overran the almost non-protected cities of Paramoun (Pelusium), and Memphis. In 38 BCE, Pacorus clashed with 20,000 Egyptian soldiers at Sais, however, *Demetrius VI, was again defeated and began fortifying in Alexandria.

In 39 BCE, the Carthaginian Empire invaded the Egyptian vassal kingdom of Cyrenaica, during the Cyrenaican War (39-38 BCE). The Phoenicians captured as far as the city of Amunia (Paraitonion), annexing the region from the declining Demetrian Kingdom, which was now attacked from both sides. Meanwhile, Pacorus I destroyed the remaining Egyptian army and had stormed their capital, during the Siege of Alexandria in 38 BCE. Knowing that he would be taken to Orodes' II court in Parthia, (and likely executed thereafter), *Demetrius VI and his son *Demetrius VII both committed suicide in 38 BCE. Orodes II submitted the throne to Pacorus I, in 37 BCE. Egypt itself became a Parthian vassal kingdom, as well as Carthaginian Cyrenaica.

Beginning of the Golden Age and Exploration campaigns (35 BCE-50 CE)
The Carthaginian Golden Age began in 35 BCE, when the Phoenicians colonized the Canarian islands. By 25 BCE, the Carthaginians established numerous trade ports in Western Africa, reaching from OTL Morocco to OTL Gabon.

The Carthaginians traded with peoples whose language they did not understand, originially accounted by Herodotus: (Herodotus, Histories 4):

"The Carthaginians tell us that they traded with a race of people living in a part of Libya (i.e. Africa) outside the Pillars of Heracles (i.e. Strait of Gibraltar). Upon reaching this land, they (the Carthaginian merchants) unload their trade goods, spread them out neatly on the beach, and while returning to their boats, they make a smoke signal (with fire). Upon seeing this sign, the locals come down to the beach, deposit a certain amount of gold there as barter goods, and then leave again at a certain distance. The Carthaginians now come back to the beach and examine the gold. If they find it represents a fair price for their goods, they collect it and leave with it; otherwise, if it seems too little, they go back to their boats and wait for the locals to come back and deposit more gold until both are satisfied with it. There is perfect honesty on both sides; the Carthaginians do not take the gold until its quantity equals the value of what they have offered for sale, and the natives do not take any goods offered until the gold has been taken away by the Carthaginians as the price for it."

In 20 CE, the Carthaginians expanded south of OTL Morocco, reaching all the way to OTL Western Sahara. There they established the city of Arambys, originally founded as a trade port by Hanno the explorer.

Almost addicted to the wealth of gold and ivory in West Africa, in 50 CE, the Phoenicians expanded their colonies all the way to OTL Gambia. On their way, the Carthaginians founded the cities of Cerne (OTL an island near El Mamghar) and [...] (OTL Dakar).

Second Levantine- and Third Eygptian War (50-53 CE)
After the death of Jesus Christ by stoning in 50 CE (and claimed resurrection thereafter), a revolt broke out in Judea, known as the Great Christian Revolt. However, the Christians knew that the Parthian Empire could easily crush their rebellion, which controlled the region. The Christian general, *Malachi, asked the Pontic king for support. The king saw this as a chance to conquer Syria from the Parthians, while their ally would get Isreal.

Meanwhile, a Parthian army, numbering 20,000 men, was coming close to Jerusalem. Initially wanting to fight, *Malachi got rejected by the apostles for being a warmonger. However, when the Parthians saw an army with Pontic symbols, the latter got completely confused and, as a result, the Parthians were completely crushed, not expecting an attack from Pontos, during the Battle of Jerusalem (51 CE). Meanwhile, in the north, the Pontic army launched a surprise attack and captured Antioch, Edessa and Palmyra, by 52 CE. After capturing Tigranocerta, the two Pontic armies, each numbering around 50,000 men, were both marching to the city of Hatra.

However, due to a misconception, the Parthians believed it was only one force that marched east, and thus, the king sent one army, consisting of 80,000 men. The southern Pontic force, led by their king, has reached the city first and began its formation. However, when the Parthians were about to charge, the 50,000 strong army smashed them from behind, while the southern force now began to charge as well. The Parthians were completely annihilated from both sides. 70,000 men were killed in the Battle of Hatra (52 CE), and 10,000 captured. The Parthians were completely exhausted, and were forced to sue for peace.

In late 52 CE, the Pontic Empire and the Parthian Empire signed a peace treaty. The Bishopric of Jerusalem asserted control of all of former Judea. Pontos gained control over Antioch, Syria, Nabataea, the city of Ascalon, and Egypt. The Hasmonean Jews were to be exiled into the Pontic client state of Ituraea. Having no other choice, the Parthians agreed, marking the end of the Second Levantine War (50-52 CE).

However, as Egypt was isolated from the Pontic mainland, the region turned out to be very unstable and hard to govern. In 52 CE, the Carthaginian Empire used this chance and attacked Egypt. The Pontic king, was completely taken by suprise, and Egypt was literally overrun, with Alexandria falling in late 52, due to a heavy naval blockade. Meanwhile, the Phoenicians in the Levant were taking a rather defensive position. The Pontic armed clashed with the Phoenicians at the city of Oyat in 52 CE. Pontos, just recovering from the war with Parthia, was again completely defeated. The Carthaginians almost managed to capture Antioch. However, by that point, the Phoenicians had already reached their goal and made a peace treaty with Pontos. Carthage would assert control over Egypt, while Syria would remain under Pontic control. Egypt itself would be made a vassal kingdom.

Further explorations (110-223 CE)
In 110 CE, Carthage began to colonize the islands in the OTL Gulf of Guinea, and from 130-170 CE onwards, they founded the cities of *Targusis (OTL Freetown), [...] (OTL Accra), [...] (OTL Abidjan), *Mintus (OTL Lagos), *New Sur/Tyros (Ph. Qartsūr) (OTL Malabo), [...] (OTL Libreville) and [...] (OTL Port-Gentil). During the next 200 years, these cities would continue to prosper and expand, even with the extreme distance to the capital. They brought Phoenician culture and even technology, slowly but surely over time into West Africa.

In 173 CE, Berber tribes had invaded (OTL) modern-day Morocco and southern Iberia. However, those were repelled and defeated in 174 CE.

Padanian War (236-237 CE) and First Italian War (238-240 CE)
In 223 CE, the Cimbrian and Teuton kingdoms in southern Gaul, had fallen to the Christian Arvernian Empire. Carthage now feared an invasion into its territory. By 236 CE, the Gauls had attacked the Carthaginian satellite state of Rasenna, starting the Padanian War (236-237 CE). The Arverni were weakened, when in Summer of 237, the Alemanni invaded OTL western Switzerland, halting further advance for a short time. However, the Carthaginians were defeated at the Battles of Felsina (236 CE) and Sena (237 CE). All land north of Aritim (OTL Arretium), was now controlled by the Arvernians. However, the Rasennans, the Umbrians and the Samnites used this as a chance to rise up and assert independence, annihilating the just defated Carthaginian soldiers and chaotically pushing them back to southeastern Italy, after occupying Corsica as well. The Carthaginians tried to reconquer Italy during the First Italian War (238-240 CE), however, were unsuccessful and retained southeastern Italy. The Umbrian capital Ikuvium at the border of the Arverni, was victim to numerous Gallic skirmishes in the following years.

Third Levantine War (236-237 CE)
From 236-237, simultaneously during the heavy loss of Carthaginian power, as a result of the First Italian War (238-240 CE), the Sasanian king, Ardashir I, had overrun the Phoenician Levant, Egypt and Cyprus. Carthage now had to recover greatly, to avoid a possible decline or even collapse.

Aftermath and West African cities (237-406 CE)
To compensate its lost territory, in 240 CE, Carthage expanded its Iberian coastline all the way to the Pyrenees, at the border of the Arvernian Empire, conquering the Greek kingdom of New Greece. There, the Phoenicians founded the cities of Tarraco (OTL Tarragona) and [...] (OTL Barcelona).

By 320 CE, Carthage expanded its naval technology and was, again, eager to conquer more unknown lands. That same year, the Phoenicians sailed all the way south of the Cape of Good Hope, though some suggested they even circumnavigated Africa back to the Mediterranean. On their way, the Carthaginians established the trading posts of [...] (OTL Soyo), [...] (OTL Luanda), [...] (OTL Lüderitz) and [...] (OTL Cape Town). During the next 50 years, these cities expanded, though still remained much smaller, compared to the West African cities. Near the city of [...] (OTL Soyo), the Carthaginians sailed deep into Central Africa through the Congo River and established more, though very tiny, trade ports.

Vandal Invasions and Fall of Carthago (406-422 CE)
In 406 CE, reports from chaos, raids and the collapse of the Arvernian Empire, caused by Germanic tribes, reached the Phoenicians. Carthage was now alarmed, as these tribes were reported to be moving south into Iberia. At the same time, the Huns were devastating Eastern Europe and Greece.

In 409 CE, the Vandals, Suevi and Alans established kingdoms in Iberia, while raiding and occupying nearly all of the Carthaginian holdings there, while the remains were revolting and asserted independence. This was a huge blow to Carthaginian wealth and power, as Iberia was one of the most important regions for the Pheonicians.

After the migration into Iberia, the Vandals invaded the Carthaginian colonies at the Strait of Gibraltar. Due to pressure from the resisting Iberians, the Vandals invaded Northern Africa in 415 CE, attacking Carthaginian colonies there as well. They allied with the Numidians, who sought to regain their homeland. In 416, the Vandals advanced to the Carthaginian city of Hippo and sieged it. The Vandals were attacking from the urbanized northern coast, while the Numidians, who asserted independence of their kingdom in 415 CE, attacked from the south.

Carthage is now only comprised of Carthago, its surrounding cities, as well as Southern Italy, Sardinia and the Baleares. After the 2 year long Siege of Carthago itself from 420-422 CE, the Carthaginian Empire collapsed, which fell ultimately into Vandal hands. The Vandals had sacked, raided and looted the city of Carthago.

Italian holdouts and Exile in Africa (422- CE)
Before Carthago was fully occupied, the kings family, 10,000 soldiers and 12,000 civilians evacuated to Syracuse in mass. The last remaining 52 ships had left the harbour of Carthago. At first, seing this massive fleet, the Vandals pursued them with their own ships. However, after being defeated on the way by the technological superior Phoenician ships, the Vandals sailed back to Carthago. The Carthaginians centered their last holdings around southeastern Italy, including Sardinia and even the Balearic Islands, with the capital being Syracuse. However, as Europe was completely devastated, the Carthaginian Empire, still remained the center of European civilization, as southern Italy was almost untouched. The city of Carthago often rose up, yet didnt manage to assert independence, as the Phoenicians in Italy had to rebuild their army and hegemony, before being able to send an army. However, as the Carthaginian navy stayed mostly intact, sea skirmishes and weapon supports often took place.

In 422 CE, Cyrenaica had split off from Carthage and established its own kingdom, until itself was conquered by the Sassanids in 465.

Meanwhile, the colonies in Western Africa had to survive without Carthaginian support and founded their own Carthaginian successor kingdom, the Phoenician League. It took about 4 months for the ships to arrive at *Mintus (OTL Lagos), the new capital of the Phoenician League. *Mintus and the other African cities were slowly but steadily rising in population, and by 425 CE, *Mintus had a population of about 25,000 people.

* Indicates that a name is fictional, though made to fit with the timeline.

List of Carthaginian Kings
These are the names and reign dates.

Magonid dynasty

Mago I (550-530 BCE)

Hasdrubal I (530-510 BCE)

Hamilcar I (510-480 BCE) - In 480 BCE, following Hamilcar I's death, the king lost most of his power to an aristocratic Council of Elders.

Hanno II (480-440 BCE)

Hannibal I (440-405 BCE)

Himilico II (405-396 BCE)

Mago II (396-375 BCE)

Mago III (375-344 BCE)

Hanno III (344-340 BCE)

Hannonian dynasty

Hanno IV "the Great" (340-337 BCE)

Gisco I (337-330 BCE)

Hamilcar II (330-309 BCE)

Bomilcar I (309- BCE) - Succeeded in a coup, which restored the monarchy to full power.

Source
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ancient_Carthage

https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hanno_der_Seefahrer (translated parts into English).

https://www.alternatehistory.com/forum/threads/barbaria-a-world-without-rome.169251/page-1 (Thank you for inspiration).

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lusitanian_War

https://classicalstudies.org/annual-meeting/149/abstract/carthaginian-manpower

https://www.dailymail.co.uk/sciencetech/article-8447745/Massive-volcanic-eruption-Alaska-43-BC-triggered-global-climate-shock.html

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=2QBA6ZPmj3Q

Flag Credits
This flag was NOT made by me. Credits to https://www.reddit.com/r/vexillology/comments/ee3ntv/flag_of_carthage/ for making this beautiful flag.